^  \r  1^. 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


I.I 


*>^  Uii  12.2 

lio    12.0 


III 

u 


IL25  in  1.4 


ILfi. 


-j> 


FholDgraphic 

Sdeices 

CorpQralion 


^ 


\ 


:\ 


\ 


^. 


23  WIST  MAIN  STRHT 

WIBSTIi.N.Y.  14SM 

(71«)a72-4S03 


4^' 


, 


^ 


t 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHM/ICMH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microreproductiont  /  Institut  Canadian  da  microraproductions  historiquat 


Technical  and  Bibliographic  Notaa/Notas  tachniquaa  at  bibliographiquaa 


Tha  instituta  hat  attamptad  to  obtain  tha  boat 
original  copy  availabia  for  filming.  Faaturaa  of  thia 
copy  which  may  ba  bibliographlcally  uniqua. 
which  may  altar  any  of  tha  imagaa  in  tha 
reproduction,  or  which  may  aignificantiy  change 
tha  usual  method  of  filming,  are  checked  below. 


L'Inatltut  a  microf llmA  la  mailleur  exemplaira 
qu'il  lui  a  4t4  poaaibla  de  sa  procurer.  Lea  dAtailt 
da  cet  exemplaira  qui  aont  paut-Atre  uniques  du 
point  de  vue  bibllographique,  qui  peuvent  modifier 
une  ItnmQm  reproduite,  ou  qui  peuvent  exiger  une 
modificaiiion  dana  la  mithode  normale  de  filmage 
sont  indiquto  ci-dessous. 


D 


Coloured  covers/ 
Couverture  de  couleur 


I      I    Covers  damaged/ 


D 


D 


D 
D 


D 


Couverture  endommagAe 

Covers  restored  and/or  laminated/ 
Couverture  restaur^  at/ou  pellicula 


I      I    Cover  title  missing/ 


La  titre  de  couverture  manque 


I      I    Coloured  maps/ 


Cartes  giographiques  en  couleur 

Coloured  ink  (I.e.  other  than  blue  or  black)/ 
Encra  da  couleur  (I.e.  autre  que  bleue  ou  noire) 


I      I    Coloured  plates  and/or.  illustrations/ 


Planches  et/ou  illustrations  an  couleur 

Bound  with  other  material/ 
Rail*  avac  d'autres  documents 

Tight  binding  may  cause  shadows  or  distortion 
along  interior  margin/ 

La  re  liure  serrie  paut  causer  de  I'ombre  ou  de  la 
distortion  la  long  da  la  marge  intArieure 

Blank  leaves  added  during  restoration  may 
appear  within  the  text.  Whenever  possible,  these 
have  been  omitted  from  filming/ 
II  se  peut  que  certainas  pages  blanches  ajouttea 
lore  d'une  restauration  apparaiasant  dans  la  texte, 
mais,  lorsque  cela  Atait  possible,  ces  pagea  n'ont 
pas  4tA  filmtos. 


D 
D 

D 


0 
D 
D 
D 


Coloured  pages/ 
Pages  de  couleur 

Pages  damaged/ 
Pages  endommagias 

Pages  restored  and/or  laminated/ 
Pages  restauries  et/ou  pellicultes 

Pages  discoloured,  stained  or  foxed/ 
Pages  dAcolortes,  tachatAes  ou  piqu^as 

Pages  d*itachad/ 
Pages  dttachias 

Showthrough/ 
Transparence 

Quality  of  print  varies/ 
Qualiti^  InAgala  de  I'impression 

Includes  supplementary  material/ 
Comprend  du  material  suppMmentaira 

Only  edition  available/ 
Seule  Mition  disponibie 

Pages  wholly  or  pertially  obscured  by  errata 
slips,  tissues,  etc.,  have  been  ref limed  to 
ensure  the  best  possible  image/ 
Lea  pages  totalament  ou  partiellement 
obscurcies  par  un  feuillet  d'errata,  una  pelure, 
etc.,  ont  AtA  filmies  A  nouveau  de  fapon  A 
obtanir  la  mailleure  image  possible. 


D 


Additional  comments:/ 
Commentairas  suppldmantaires: 


This  item  is  filmed  at  the  reduction  ratio  checked  below/ 

Ce  document  est  film6  au  taux  da  reduction  indiquA  ci-dessous. 

10X  14X  18X  22X 


26X 


anx 


>/ 


12X 


16X 


aox 


24X 


28X 


32X 


nplair* 
L«s  ditaiis 
niquM  du 
•nt  modifier 
•xigar  unt 
I  d«  f  ilmage 


Th*  copy  fllmod  horo  has  baan  raproduead  thanka 
to  tha  ganaroaity  of: 

National  Library  of  Canada 


Tha  imagaa  appaaring  hara  ara  tha  baat  quality 
poaaibia  conaidaring  tha  condition  and  lagibiiity 
of  tha  original  copy  and  in  kaaping  with  tha 
filming  contract  apaclficationa. 


L'axamplaira  fllmA  fut  raproduit  grica  i  la 
g4n*roaitA  da: 

BibiiothAqua  nationaia  du  Canada 


Laa  Imagaa  auivantaa  ont  4tA  raproduitaa  avac  la 
plua  grand  aoin,  compta  tanu  da  la  condition  at 
da  la  nattati  da  raxamplaira  f  ilm«,  at  an 
conformity  avac  la*  conditions  du  contrat  da 
filmaga. 


f 

• 

ad/ 
liqutes 


Original  copiaa  In  printad  papar  covars  ara  fllmad 
beginning  with  tha  front  covar  and  ending  on 
the  last  page  with  a  printad  or  illuatratad  Imprea- 
slon,  or  tha  back  covar  when  appropriate.  All 
other  original  copies  ara  filmed  beginning  on  the 
first  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  Impres- 
sion, and  ending  on  the  iaat  page  with  a  printad 
or  illustrated  Impression. 


Les  exempleires  origineux  dont  la  couverture  en 
pepler  est  ImprimAe  sont  filmis  en  commenpant 
par  la  premier  plat  et  en  terminant  soit  par  la 
darnlAre  page  qui  comporta  une  emprelnte 
d'impreasion  ou  d'iilustration,  solt  par  la  second 
plat,  salon  la  cas.  Tous  las  autres  axemplaires 
origineux  sont  fllmte  en  commen^ant  par  la 
pramlAre  page  qui  comporta  una  emprelnte 
d'impreasion  ou  d'iilustration  at  en  terminant  par 
la  darnlAre  page  qui  comporte  una  telle 
emprelnte. 


The  last  recorded  frame  on  each  microfiche 
ahall  contain  tha  symbol  — ^  (meaning  "CON- 
TINUED"), or  tha  symbol  y  (meaning  "END"), 
whichever  appllea. 


Un  das  symboles  suivants  apparaltra  sur  la 
darnlAre  image  de  chaqua  microfiche,  selon  le 
caa:  la  symbols  — »>  signifie  "A  SUIVRE",  la 
symbols  V  signifie  "FIN  ". 


itaira 


IMaps,  plates,  charts,  etc..  may  be  filmed  at 
different  reduction  ratios.  Those  too  large  to  be 
entirely  included  In  one  expoaura  are  filmed 
beginning  In  the  upper  left  hand  corner,  left  to 
-ight  and  top  to  bottom,  aa  many  framea  aa 
required.  The  following  diagrama  Illustrate  the 
method: 


Les  cartas,  planches,  tableaux,  etc.,  peuvent  Atra 
fllmte  A  dea  taux  de  reduction  diffArents. 
Loraqua  le  document  est  trop  grand  pour  Atra 
raproduit  an  un  seul  clichA,  il  est  fiimA  A  partir 
de  Tangle  supArisur  gauche,  da  gauche  A  droite, 
et  de  haut  an  isas,  an  prenant  la  nombra 
d'Imagas  nAcessaira.  Las  diagrammas  suivanta 
lliuatrent  la  mAthode. 


I  by  errata 
mad  to 

nent 

une  peiure. 
fapon  A 


1  2  3 


sx 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

Plate I 


Fpom.  ecfhothog  i\x^A . 


J'SBuucJ,  Son.  t  A.Ptdf 


AMERICAN  BEAVER. 


I 


ei 


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»  11 


rtr 


I 


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x\^ 


yf,\i\>f 


A 

^ 


THE 


<D.  tu^'J'V 


AMERICAN    BEAVER 


'^.  :u.'<f, 


AND 


HIS    WORKS. 


BY 


LEWIS  H.  MORGAN, 

AUTHOR    OV    "THB    LBAeCK    Or    TBB    IBOQCOIS.' 


******  ^S', 


IfH.Xuil'i 


VX'.i 


^ 
^ 


<•->'  »;*»  fo 


PHILADBLPHIA: 

J.   B.   LIPPINCOTT    &    CO. 

1868. 


I 


Entered,  according  to  the  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1868,  by 

LEWIS  H.  MORGAN, 

In  the  Clerk's  OfBoe  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  in  and  for 


the  Northern  District  of  New  Yorlt. 


TO 

SAMUEL   P.  ELY,  Esq., 

OF  MARqUETTE,  MICHIGAN, 

^hiti  V0tttw«  in  iufittihtA 

AS     A    SLIGHT    MEMENTO 

OP  THE  LONG   AND  UNINTERRUPTED   FRIENDSHIP 

WHICH  HAS  SUBSISTED  BETWEEN  HIM  AND 


THE  AUTHOR. 


ROCHUTB*,  New  YOKK, 

November  21,  1867. 


(iii) 


"Natural  Hiitory,  then,  should  be  bued  on  what  is  called  a  Syttem  of  Nature; 
or  a  great  Catalogue,  in  which  all  beings  bear  acknowledged  names,  may  be  recog- 
nized by  distinctive  characters,  and  distributed  in  divisions  and  subdivisions  them- 
selves named  and  characterized,  in  which  they  may  be  found." — Cuvitr'i  Animal 
Kingdom,  Intro.  15. 

"  And  after  all,  what  does  it  matter  to  science  that  thousands  of  species,  more  or 
less,  should  be  described  and  entered  in  our  systems,  if  we  know  nothing  about 
thtm}"—Agattiz't  Nat.  Hut.  U.  S.,  i.  57. 


(iv) 


1 


PREFACE. 


Trk  pablication  of  Ouvier's  Animal  Kingdom  established  an 
epoch  in  the  science  of  zoology.  This  eminent  scholar  brought 
to  bis  subject  the  critical  and  reflective  powers  of  a  great  intellect, 
and  the  varied  and  profound  acquirements  of  a  laborions  life. 
Having  possessed  himself  of  the  results  of  antecedent  as  well  as 
contemporary  investigations,  and  extended  his  researches  with 
more  or  less  exactness,  over  the  entire  animal  kingdom,  he  was 
enabled  to  construct,  upon  the  "  System  of  Nature,"  that  remark- 
able system  for  the  classification  of  animals,  which  now  forms  the 
basis  of  zoological  science.* 

This  system  of  classification  is  founded  exclusively  upon  the 
anatomical  structure  of  animals,  whence  comparative  anatomy  is 
the  source  of  its  materials.  It  not  only  rejects  the  habits  and 
properties  of  animals  as  immaterial  and  transient,  but  it  also 
leaves  out  of  consideration  their  mental  endowments,  which,  how- 
ever important  in  other  respects,  were  incapable  of  affording  a 
basis  of  classification. 

Under  its  clear  and  definite  discriminations  all  the  species  of 
each  of  the  four  great  branches  of  the  animal  kingdom  are  seen 
in  intelligible  and  harmonious  relations,  notMrithstanding  their 
striking  diversities  of  form.  Unity  of  type  runs  through  the 
structural  organization  of  all  the  individuals  comprised  in  each 
of  these  branches.  The  grandeur  of  this  fourfold  plan  of  creation 
is  not  more  impressive  than  the  wonderful  adaptation  of  the  sai> 
rounding  elements  to  the  condition  and  wants  of  the  multitude 
of  animal  organisms  which  God  has  made. 

It  is  not,  however,  the  whole  of  the  science  of  zoology  to 


^  Agassis  dates  the  new  period  from  1812,  "when  Guvier  laid  before  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  Paris  the  results  of  his  investigations  *  *  *  which 
had  satisfied  him  that  all  animals  were  constructed  upon  four  different 
jH&nB."— Natural  History  United  Statu,  i.  198.  The  "Regne  Animal"  did 
not  appear,  however,  until  1816. 

(V) 


71  PREFACE. 

furni.^h  a  HyHtnimtic  catalogue  of  anitualB,  with  its  cxpoBltioD  lim* 
it(!(l  to  tilt!  frif^id  dvtailH  of  anatomical  Mructuru.  ThiH  would 
rt'Htrict  it  to  dead  rntliur  than  to  living  forniH.  Each  aniniul  is 
endowed  with  u  living,  and,  uIho,  with  a  ttiinking  principlu,  tho 
manifustationH  of  each  of  which  are  not  Iuhm  important  and  in- 
Htructlvo  than  tho  niechaninm  of  tho  material  frames  in  which 
they  reside.  In  a  comparative  Henuo  tho  former  are  intrinuically 
of  higher  concernment. 

A  monograph  upon  each  of  tho  principal  animals  seems,  there- 
fore, to  bo  desirable,  if  not  absolutely  necessary,  to  All  out,  in 
some  measure,  this  great  programme ;  and  to  completo  the  super- 
structure of  a  science,  the  foundations  of  which  have  been  so 
admirably  established.  These  should  contain  a  minute  exposi- 
tion of  their  artificial  works,  where  such  are  constructed ;  of  their 
habits,  their  mode  of  life,  and  their  mutual  relations.  When  the 
facts  bearing  upon  those  several  subjects  have  been  collected  and 
systematized,  the  necessary  materials  will  be  furnished  for  the 
proper  elucidation  of  the  long  neglected  subject  of  Animal  Psy- 
chology. 

This  volume  upon  "The  American  Beaver  and  his  Works," 
although  it  falls  much  below  the  dignity  and  completeness  of  a 
monograph,  is  oflfered  as  an  experiment  in  this  special  undertaking 
of  collecting  and  systematizing  our  knowledge  of  the  habits  and 
mode  of  life  of  the  inferior  animals.  Whether  the  zoologist  will 
turn  aside  from  the  more  intricate  and  fascinating  subjects  of  his 
science  to  consider  the  personal  acts  and  artificial  erections  of 
this  bumble,  but  most  industrious  mute ;  and  whether  the  general 
reader  will  find  either  pleasure  or  profit  in  studying  the  manifest- 
ations of  intelligence  by  a  single  animal,  when  spread  out  with 
so  much  detail,  I  cannot  pretend  to  form  an  opinion.  A  treatise 
overdone  is  as  distasteful  to  the  reader  as  one  imperfectly  exe- 
cuted; and  since  this  is  liable  to  both  objections,  it  is  submitted, 
not  without  misgivings,  to  the  public  judgment. 

As  books  of  this  description  are  more  or  less  accidental  pro- 
ductions, it  is  sometimes  proper  to  state  how  they  came  to  be 
written.  Notwithstanding  some  reluctance  to  enter  upon  per- 
sonal details,  there  is,  in  the  present  case,  an  urgent  necessity 
for  a  brief  explanation  to  bespeak  the  confidence  of  the  reader 
in  the  results  of  this  investigation.  It  furnishes  an  apology  for 
introducing  the  following  statement. 


PREFACE. 


Vll 


In  the  yonr  iHA'i  a  Railroad  wa^4  pn)J<>cto(l  and  coniinfincwd  by 
tho  lato  Ilonoraltio  llt'man  H.  Kly,  to  o|M<n  tlio  iron  n>ffion  on  th(> 
Houth  Hhoro  of  Lake  «Su|)urior,  and  introductt  itn  rich  and  ini^x- 
hauMtihio  or«H  into  tho  nianufocturinfr  indnHtry  of  tho  country.  In 
thirt  untcrprixo  hiH  brothcrH,  Snniud  T.  Kly,  (ioitrgo  II.  Kly,  and 
John  F.  Kly,  and  thoir  undo,  tho  lato  Horvty  Kly,'  then  rcHidonts, 
oxcopt  one,  of  Rochentcr,  New  York,  woro  anHociated.  Tho  niajf- 
nitudo  of  tho  undortakinf^  will  bo  approciatod  whon  it  is  Htatnd 
that  thitt  ontiro  rogion  was  thon  an  uninhabited  wilderncHH,  with 
tho  exception  of  a  few  hamlota  at  Marquctto,  the  proHont  port  of 
tho  iron  diHtrict  on  Lake  Su|>erlor,  and  a  few  log  cabiuH  at  tho 
Iron  mines,  which  had  shortly  boforo  boon  dlBcovorod,  bat  woro 
still  undeveloped.  At  that  time  tho  St.  Mary's  Ship  Canal,  which 
three  ycara  '.iter  connected  tho  lower  lakes  with  Lako  Supttrior, 
although  projected,  was  not  conmienccd ;  consequently  naviga- 
tion  between  these  lakes  was  obstructed  by  the  rapids  in  tho  Ht. 
Mary's  Kiver.  Besides  this  obstacle,  it  was  five  hundred  miles 
from  Marquctto  to  Detroit,  the  nearest  point  from  which  supplies 
could  be  obtained.  Notwithstanding  those  formidablo  difUcultios, 
the  Messrs.  Ely  persovorod  in  the  enterprise  until  1856,  when 
thoy  found  it  advisable,  after  a  large  expenditure,  to  accept  the 
co-oporation  of  other  parties  in  the  further  prosecution  of  the 
work.  Joseph  S.  Fay,  Esq.,  of  Boston,  Edwin  Parsons,  Eot.|.,  of 
New  York,  and  some  other  capitalists,  were  then  admitted  into 
the  association.  In  1858  the  Railroad  was  completed  to  the  three 
principal  iron  locations,  and  in  1865  to  Lake  Michigame,  after  an 
expenditure  of  about  a  million  and  a  half  of  dollars. 

Under  the  stimulus  of  commercial  causes  a  Railroad  was  thus 
constructed  through  a  rugged  wilderness  for  a  distance  of  forty 


>  I  oannot  mcntioa  the  name  of  my  venerable  and  noble  friend,  now  do- 
oeased,  without  expressing  my  high  appreciation  of  his  great  abilities,  of 
his  genial  and  unselfish  nature,  and  of  his  liberal  aod  enlightened  senti- 
ments. He  will  be  favorably  remembered  as  one  of  the  great  men  of  liis 
day  and  generation.  Born  in  West  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  January 
10th,  1791,  he  established  himself  in  Rochester  in  1813,  where  he  engaged 
extensively  in  manufacturing  and  commercial  enterprises,  in  which  he  con- 
tinued until  1861,  when  he  retired  from  business.  He  died  in  this  city, 
November  28d,  1862.  It  was  my  privilege  to  know  him  intimately  for  nearly 
twenty  years;  and  this  passing  tribute  to  his  memory  is  founded  upon 
personal  knowledge  of  his  worth. 


Vlll 


PREFACE. 


miles,  and  opened  a  country  which,  but  for  its  mineral  deposits, 
would  have  been  pronounced  unfit  for  human  habitation.  With 
its  unequalcd  summer  climate,  and  its  unlimited  mineral  wealth, 
it  has  now  become  one  of  the  most  attractive  regions  within  our 
national  limits. 

It  so  happened  that  this  Railroad  passed  through  a  beaver  dis- 
trict, more  remarkable,  perhaps,  than  any  other  of  equal  extent 
to  be  found  in  any  part  of  North  America.  By  opening  this  wil- 
derness in  advance  of  all  settlement,  the  beavers  were  surprised, 
so  to  speak,  in  the  midst  of  their  works,  which,  at  the  same  time, 
were  rendered  accessible  for  minute  and  deliberate  investigation, 
in  a  manner  altogether  unusual.  A  rare  opportunity  was  thus 
oflfered  to  examine  the  works  of  the  beaver,  and  to  see  him  in  his 
native  wilds. 

Having  been  associated  in  this  enterprise  from  its  commence- 
ment, as  one  of  the  directors  of  the  Railroad  Company,  and  as  one 
of  its  stockholders,  business  called  me  to  Marquette,  first  in  1855, 
and  nearly  every  summer  since  to  the  present  iime.  After  the 
completion  of  the  Railroad  to  the  iron  mines,  Ic  was  impossible  to 
withstand  the  temptation  to  brook-trout  fishing,  which  the  streams 
traversing  the  intermediate  and  adjacent  districts  oflfered  in  ample 
measure.  My  friend,  Gilbert  D.  Johnson,  Supermtendent  of  the 
Lake  Superior  Mine,  had  established  boat  stations  at  convenient 
points  upon  the  Carp  and  Esconauba  Rivers,  and  to  him  I  am 
specially  indebted  first,  for  a  memorable  experience  in  brook-trout 
fishing,  and  secondly,  for  an  introduction  to  the  works  of  the 
beaver  within  the  areas  traversed  by  these  streams.  Our  course, 
in  passing  up  and  down,  was  obstructed  by  beaver  dams  at  short 
intervals,  from  two  to  three  feet  high,  over  which  we  were  com- 
pelled to  draw  our  boat.  Their  numbers  and  magnitude  could 
not  fail  to  surprise  as  well  as  interest  any  observer.  Although 
constructed  in  the  solitude  of  the  wilderness,  where  the  forces  of 
nature  were  still  actively  at  work,  it  was  evident  that  they 
had  existed  and  been  maintained  for  centuries  by  the  permanent 
impression  produced  upon  the  rugged  features  of  the  country. 
The  results  of  the  persevering  labors  of  the  beaver  were  suggest- 
ive of  human  industry.  The  streams  were  bordered  continuously 
with  beaver  meadows,  formed  by  overflows  by  means  of  these 
dams,  which  had  destroyed  the  timber  upon  the  adjacent  lands. 
Fallen  trees,  excavated  canals,  lodges,  and  burrows,  filled  up  the 


V 


PREFACE. 


IX 


measure  of  their  works.  These  together  seemed  to  me  to  afTord 
a  much  greater  promise  of  pleasure  than  could  be  gained  with 
the  fish-pole,  and  very  soon,  accordingly,  the  beaver  was  substi- 
tuted for  the  trout.  I  took  up  the  subject  as  I  did  fishing, 
for  summer  recreation.  In  the  year  1861,  I  had  occasion  to 
visit  the  Red  River  Settlement  in  the  Hudson's  Bay  Territory, 
and  in  1862,  to  ascend  the  Missouri  River  to  the  Rocky  Mount- 
ains, which  enabled  me  to  compare  the  works  of  the  beaver  in 
these  localities  with  those  on  Lake  Superior.  At  the  outset  I  had 
no  expectation  of  following  up  the  subject  year  after  year,  but 
was  led  on,  by  the  interest  which  it  awakened,  until  the  mate- 
rials collected  seemed  to  be  worth  arranging  for  publication. 
Whether  this  last  surmise  is  well  or  ill  founded,  I  am  at  least  cer- 
tain that  no  other  animal  will  be  allowed  to  entrap  the  unambi- 
tious author  so  completely  as  he  confesses  himself  to  have  been 
by  the  beaver.  My  unrestrained  curiosity  has  cost  me  a  good 
deal  of  time  and  labor. 

After  measuring  and  attempting  to  sketch  a  number  of  these 
dams,  I  found  it  impossible  to  reproduce  even  a  feeble  copy.  It 
was  evident  that  the  photographic  art  was  alone  capable  of 
handling  such  a  complicated  subject ;  and  of  fixing,  once  for  all, 
its  remarkable  features.  It  seemed,  also,  to  be  extremely  desir- 
able to  secure  an  accurate  representation  of  these  structures  while 
they  were  in  a  perfect  state,  as  well  as  accessible ;  since  it  was 
certain  that  they  would  be  abandoned  by  the  beavers  with  the 
establishment  of  settlements  in  their  vicinity,  after  which  they 
would  speedily  fall  into  decay.  While  maturing  a  plan  to  take 
into  the  country  for  this  purpose  a  party  of  photographers,  the 
desire  was  gratified  by  the  adventure  of  Mr.  James  A.  Jenney, 
who  came  to  Marquette  in  1861,  with  an  instrument  and  the 
necessary  appliances  for  taking  landscape  views.  With  him  I 
made  an  arrangement  for  a  series  of  photographs.  The  following 
year,  my  friend,  the  Rev.  Josiah  Phelpa,  rector  of  St.  Peter's 
Church  at  Marquette,  who  had  taken  up  this  beautiful  art  as  an 
amateur,  generouf  ly  placed  his  instrument  and  his  services  at  ray 
disposal,  and  thus  a  large  number  of  additional  photographs 
were  obtained  from  time  to  time.  The  engravings  in  this  volume, 
with  some  exceptions,  were  made  from  selections  from  these 
photographs. 

In  addition  to  these,  I  made  a  general  beaver  collection,  suffi- 


X  PREFACE. 

ciently  ample  to  illustrate  other  branches  of  the  subject,  consist- 
ing of  mounted  specimens  of  the  beaver,  and  of  his  skeleton,  skulls, 
pelts,  tree  cuttings,  and  limb  and  pole  cuttings,  of  all  sizes  and 
kinds,  engravings  of  specimens  of  which  arc  given  in  the  following 
pages. 

It  has  been  my  aim  to  speak  in  all  cases,  in  which  it  was  pos- 
sible, from  original  specimens.  In  this  manner,  truth  and  cer- 
tainty are  both  secured,  and  the  amount  of  necessary  description 
is  greatly  abridged.  It  will  be  found,  in  tho  sequel,  that  this 
account  of  the  beaver  rests  essentially  upon  actual  works  repro- 
duced by  the  photograph  and  copied  by  the  engraver.  Whatever 
value  it  may  possess  is  chiefly  referable  to  this  fact. 

Marquette,  which  in  1853  consisted  of  a  few  scattering  houses, 
now  contains  twenty-eight  hundred  Inhabitants.  Situated  upon 
a  bay  of  Lake  Superior,  and  prosperous  upon  the  large  business 
of  the  iron  region,  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  it  is  the  most 
beautiful  village  of  the  Northwest.  The  large  investments  made 
for  the  development  of  the  mineral  wealth,  and  for  the  prosecu- 
tion of  the  constantly  increasing  trade  of  the  iron  district,  have 
drawn  to  it  a  higher  and  more  intelligent  class  of  business  men 
than  is  usually  found  in  villages  of  its  size ;  and  this,  in  turn,  has 
given  to  Marquette,  in  a  social  sense,  its  superior  and  attractive 
character.  The  climate  also — a  fact  not  suspected  until  the  coun- 
try was  opened — is  one  of  the  finest,  in  the  summer,  to  be  found 
within  the  limits  of  the  United  States;  while  in  the  winter, 
from  its  steadiness  and  uniformity,  it  is  less  trying  than  that  of 
New  England  or  New  York.  Marquette  is  destined  to  become  a 
city;  and  the  principal  centre  of  business  on  Lake  Superior.' 

Besides  the  persons  previously  named,  I  am  under  very  great 
obligations  to  many  others  for  co-operation,  information,  and 
assistance,  in  various  ways,  while  engaged  upon  this  investiga- 


iThis  railroad,  which  was  first  known  as  the  "Iron  Mountain,"  then  as 
the  "Bay  de  Noquet  and  Marquette,"  and  now  as  the  "  Marquette  and  On- 
tonagon Railroad,"  has  carried  down  from  the  mines  to  Marquette  the  fol- 
lowing amounts  of  iron  ore : 


In  1868 31,000  Tons. 

1869 66,000     " 

1860 116,000     " 

1861 46,000     «« 

1862 116,000     " 


In  1863 200,000  Tons. 

1864 260,000     •' 

1866 200,000     «• 

1866 210,000     " 

1867 270,000     " 


PREFACE. 


XI 


tion.  First  among  thcin  is  my  friend,  Samuel  P.  Ely,  Esq..  now 
a  resident  of  Marquette,  and  Vice-President  and  Managing  ^<i- 
rector  of  the  Marquette  and  Ontonagon  Railroad  Company.  lie 
has  taken  a  cordial  interest  in  the  subject,  joined  mo  in  some  ex- 
peditions, and  seconded  liiv  efforts  in  every  possible  way.  The 
inscription  of  this  volume  to  him  is  but  a  slight  recognition  of  the 
part  he  has  taken  in  the  collection  of  the  materials.  To  lion. 
Peter  White,  of  Marquette;  lo  Cornelius  Ponkersley,  Esq.,  Su- 
perintendent; L.  K.  Dorrance,  Esq.,  former  Chief  Engineer;  and 
William  H.  Steele,  Esq.,  Assistant  Engineer  of  the  same  Rail- 
road, I  am  also  indebted  for  many  personal  favors ;  and  to 
Charles  H.  Kavis,  the  present  Chief  Engineer,  as  well.  I  desire 
also  to  mention  the  friendly  and  faithful  services  of  Wm.  Badger, 
who  has  spent  many  nights  with  mo  encamped  by  beaver  dams, 
and  who,  as  a  camp  master  and  explorer,  possesses  high  qualifi- 
cations. To  Capt.  Daniel  Wilson,  an  experienced  trapper,  as 
well  as  an  accurate  observer,  I  am  indebted  for  valuable  inform- 
ation. I  am  also  indebted  to  Wiiliam  Cameron,  William  Bass, 
Paul  Pine,  and  Jack  La  Pete,  Ojibwa  trappers,  for  an  acquaint- 
ance with  the  "  beaver  lore"  of  the  Indians,  which  is  both  curious 
and  instructive.  I  desire  also  to  mention  my  friend,  (Jeorge  S. 
Riley,  Esq.,  of  Rochester,  to  whom  I  am  indebted  for  valuable 
suggestions.  There  are  still  others  whose  names  would  bo  neces- 
sary to  complete  the  list  of  those  who  have  contributed  in  various 
ways  to  the  materials  contained  in  this  volume,  whose  friendly 
offices  are  remembered  with  much  pleasure. 

It  is  perhaps  superfluous  to  name  my  friend,  Dr.  W.  W.  Ely, 
of  Rochester,  since  he  is  a  direct  contributor  to  these  pages. 
Having  articulated  the  skeleton  represented  in  Plate  III.,  he  ex- 
pressed a  willingness  to  dissect  a  pair  of  beavers  if  they  could  be 
obtained,  which  was  accordingly  done.  The  carefully  prepared 
and  accurate  presentation  which  he  has  made  of  this  subject  will 
furnish  ample  materials  for  the  further  comparison  of  the  Amer- 
ican and  European  beavers. 

RooBisTEB,  A'ovembeTf  1867. 


/ 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 


0HA&A0TIBISTI08  AND  HABITAT  OT  TBI  AHBBIOAN  BIAVBB;    AND  HII 
POSITION  IN  THB  ANIHAL  KINODOM. 

Order  Rodentia — Gharaoterigtioa  of  the  Order — The  Beaver  a  Rodent 
— His  Color — Black  Beaver — Albinos — His  Size — Movements — Func- 
tions of  Tail — Vision  short — Hearing  and  Smell  acute — Social  Pro- 
pensities— Habitat  of  American  Beaver — Their  Numbers — Habitat 
of  European  Beaver — Fossil  European  Beaver — Troganihmum — 
Fossil  American  Beaver — Cattoroidet — Great  Antiquity  of  the  Beaver 
Type — Systematic  Position  of  Oaitoridm — Brandt's  Classification  of 
the  Rodentia — Independence  of  this  Family — American  and  Euro- 
pean Beavers  Varieties  of  the  same  Species 17 

CHAPTER  II. 

AHATOUT  Ot  THB  BBAVBB. 

Introduction — ^Description—  Skeleton — Skull— Teeth  —  Muscles — In- 
ternal Organs :  Mouth,  Stomach,  Intestines,  Cseoum,  Heart,  Lungs, 
Liver,  Spleen — Respiration  of  Aquatic  Animals — Brain 46 

Appxndix  a.  1.  Measurements  of  Skull.  2.  Diflferences  between 
European  and  American  Beavers  considered.  8.  Castoreum  Organs, 
and  Generative  Organs 287 


CHAPTER  m. 

BBAVBB     DAH 

Remarkable  Beaver  District — Number  of  Beaver  Dams — Other  Works 
— Character  of  the  Region — Beavers  now  abundant — Map  of  Area 
—Object  of  Dams— Their  Great  Age— Of  Two  Kinds — Interlaced 
Stick-Dam — Solid-bank  Dam — Great  Beaver  Dam  at  Grass  Lake — 
Its  Dimensions — Surrounding  Landscape — Mode  of  Construction — 
Lower  Face^Water  Face — Great  Curve — Mode  of  discharging  Sur- 

(xiii) 


XIV 


CONTENTS. 


pltiB  Water — Artistic  Appearance  of  this  Dam — Necessity  for  Contin- 
uous Repairs — Measurements — Cubic  Contents — Photograph — Man- 
ner of  taking  same — Relation  of  Dam  below — Same  of  one  aboTe — 
Manner  of  Repairing  Dams 78 

CHAPTER  IV. 

BBATEB  DAMS. — (OOMTINUKD.) 

Solid-bank  Dams — Places  where  constructed — No  Dams  in  deep 
Water — Where  imp'^ssible,  the  Beavers  inhabit  River  Banks — De- 
scription of  Solid-bank  Dam — Opening  for  Surplus  Water — Pond 
confined  to  River  Banks — Similar  Dam  with  Hedge — Fallen-tree 
Dam — Use  of  Tree  accidental — Spring  Rill  Dam — Series  of  Dams 
on  the  Carp^Dams  in  a  Gorge — Lake  Outlet  Dams — High  Dam — 
Long  Dam — Description  of  aune— Manner  of  Photographing  same 
— Dams  in  other  Districts  of  North  America — Petrified  Beaver  Dams 
in  Montana 104 

CHAPTER  V. 

BEATEB  LODQES  AND   BVBB0V8. 

Habits  of  Beaver — Our  Knowledge  limited—Indians  and  Trappers  as 
Observers — Source  of  Bu£fon's  Extravagant  Statements — Disposi- 
tion of  Beavers  to  pair — The  Family — Outcast  Beaver — Beaver  Mi- 
grations— Adaptation  to  Aquatic  Life — Suspension  of  Respiration — 
Length  of  Time — Artifice  of  Muok-Rat — Burrowing  Propensities — 
Varieties  of  the  Beaver  Lodge — Island  Lodge  at  Orass  Lake — Size 
and  Form — Chamber — Floor — Wood  Entrance — Beaver  Entrance — 
Their  Artistic  Character — Bank  Lodge  —  Mode  of  Construction — 
Chamber — Entrances — Another  Variety  of  Bank  Lodge — Chamber 
and  Entrances — Nature  of  Floor — Lake  Lodge — Differences  from 
other  Varieties  —  False  Lodge  of  Upper  Missouri — Lodges  Single 
Chambered — Burrows — Their  Form,  Size,  and  Uses — Examples,  with 
Measurements — Number  of  Beavers  to  the  Lodge — Number  of  Lodges 
to  the  Pond 182 


CHAPTER  VI. 

SVBSISTINOB  OF  BSATBB8. 

Subsistence  exclusively  Vegetable — Kinds  of  Bark  preferred — Boots 
of  Plants — Incisive  Teeth  Chisels — Their  cutting  Power — It  dimin- 
ishes with  Age — Provisions  for  Winter — Season  for  collecting — Fell- 
ing Trees — Their  Siie — Number  of  Beavers  engaged — Manner  of 
cutting — Chips — Short  Cuttings — Moving  them  on  Land — Floating 


CONTENTS. 


XV 


them  in  Water — Sinking  ihem  in  Piles — Wood-eating — Evidence  that 
they  eat  Clear  Wood — Brush-heap  at  Lodge — Restricted  to  Particu- 
lar Places — Their  Use — Ponds  in  Winter — Winter  Life  of  neavers...  166 

CHAPTER  VIL 

BIATIB  CANALS,   MEADOWS,   AMD  TRAILS. 

Beaver  Canals — Their  Extraordinary  Character — Originated  by  Neces- 
sity—Their Uses — Evidences  of  their  Artificial  Character — Canals 
at  Natural  Pond — Their  Form  and  Appearance — Canal  on  Carp 
River — Use  of  Dams  in  same — Canal  Across  Bend  of  Esconauba — 
Same  across  Island  in  Pond — Beaver  Meadows — How  formed — Their 
Extent — Beaver  Slides  on  Upper  Missouri — Scenery  on  this  River- 
Bluffs  of  Indurated  Clay— Bad  Lands — White  Walls— Game— Con- 
nection of  Biver  Systems  with  Spread  of  Beavers 191 

CHAPTER  VIIL 

MODK  or  TBAFPINa  BKATEB. 

Other  Habits  of  the  Beaver — Indications  of  Age — Tame  Beavers — Nursed 
by  Indian  Women — Building  and  Repairing  Dams — Great  Beaver 
Districts — Hudson's  Bay  Company — American  Fur  Company— Pri- 
vate Adventurers — The  Steel  Trap — Trapping  Season — Trapping  at 
the  Dam — At  the  Lodge — Traps  sprung — Whether  the  Beaver  when 
caught  bites  off  his  Fore  Foot — Trapping  under  the  Ice — Catching 
in  a  Pen — Trapping  Bank  Beavers — Catching  In  Burrows — Trap- 
pers as  a  Class — Custom  of  hanging  up  Skulls — Statistics  of  Fur 
Trade — Early  and  Recent  Exportations  —  Immense  Numbers  of 
Beavers.- 218 


CHAPTER  IX 

ANIMAL  PSTOHOLOOT. 

Inquiries  proposed — Whether  the  Mutes  possess  a  Mental  Principle — 
Whether  its  Qualities  are  similar  to  those  manifested  by  the  Human 
Mind — Whether  the  Differences  are  of  Degree,  cr  of  Kind — Consider-  ' 
ations  from  Structural  Organization — The  Principle  of  Life — Memory 
— ^Reason — Imagination — The  Will — Appetites  and  Passions — Lu- 
nacy of  Animals — General  Conclusions 248 

APPENDICES. 

A. — NoTKS  toCbapteb  II 287 

B. — Saudbl  Heabne's  Account  of  the  Beaver 806 

C. — Bennett's  Abticlb  on  the  Beaveb 817 


/ 


./ 


/ 


THE  AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


CHAPTER   I. 

CHARACTERISTICS  AND  HABITAT  OF  THE  AMERICAN 
beaver;  and  his  position  in  THE  ANIMAL  KING- 
DOM. 


Order  Rodentio — Characteristics  of  the  Order — The  Beaver  a  Rodsnt — His 
Color — Black  Beaver — Albinos — His  Size — Movements — Functions  of  Tail 
— Vision  short — Hearing  and  Smell  acute — Social  Propensities — Habitat 
of  American  Beaver — Their  Numbers — Habitat  of  European  Beaver — 
Fossil  European  Beaver — Trogontherium — Fossil  American  Beaver — Cas- 
toroidea — Great  Antiquity  of  the  Beaver  Type — Systematic  Position  of 
Castoridm — Brandt's  Classification  of  the  Rodentia — Independence  of  this 
Family — American  and  European  Beavers  varieties  of  the  same  Species. 

In  structural  organization  the  beaver  occupies  a  low 
position  in  the  scale  of  mammalian  forms.  His  low 
respiration  and  clumsy  proportions  render  him  slow 
of  motion ;  and  being  a  coarse  vegetable  feeder,  and 
adapted  both  to  water  and  to  land,  he  is  inferior  to 
the  carnivorous,  and  even  the  herbivorous  animals,  in 
those  characteristics  upon  which  the  gradations  of 
structure  are  established.  In  intelligence  and  sagacity 
he  is  undoubtedly  below  many  of  the  carnivora  which 
depend  exclusively  for  subsistence  upon  their  skill  in 
entrapping  and  seizing  prey;  neither  is  it  probable 
that  he  is  possessed  of  higher  endowments  than  other 

a  (IT) 


18 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


/ 


animals  of  a  corrosponding  grade.  And  yet  no  other 
animal  ha»  attracted  a  larger  nhare  of  attention,  or 
acquired  by  his  intelligence  a  more  respectable  \m»[- 
tion  in  public  estimation.  The  reason  is  obvious.  In 
a  pre-eminent  degree  he  requires  artificial  erections  to 
promote  his  happiness,  and  to  secure  his  safety;  con- 
sequently, we  are  enabled  to  place  our  hands  upon  his 
worits,  and  to  trace  step  by  step,  through  tangible 
formn,  the  evidences  of  his  architectural  skill.  Around 
him  are  the  dam,  the  lodge,  the  burrow,  the  tree-cut- 
ting, and  the  artificial  canal;  each  testifying  to  his 
handiwork,  and  affording  us  an  opportunity  to  see  the 
application  as  well  as  the  results  of  his  mental  and 
physical  powers.  There  is  no  animal,  below  man,  in 
the  entire  range  of  the  mammalia,  which  offers  to  our 
investigation  such  a  series  of  works,  or  presents  such 
remarkable  materials  for  the  study  and  illustration  of 
animal  psychology. 

The  specific  characteristics  and  habitat  of  the 
American  beaver,  and  his  position  in  the  animal  king- 
dom, require  some  notice  before  entering  upon  the 
subject  of  his  artificial  erections,  habits,  and  mode 
of  life.  Our  interest  in  this  animal  will  be  much  in- 
creased by  a  preliminary  consideration  of  these  several 
topics. 

Of  the  nine  orders  of  mammals  established  by 
Cuvier  in  his  systematic  treatise  upon  the  Animal 
Kingdom,  the  fifth  is  the  order  Rodentia,  or  the 
gnawers.  To  this  order  the  beaver  belongs.  He  is 
thus  found  in  the  same  category  with  the  squirrel, 
the  rat,  the  marmot,  the  porcupine,  and  the  rabbit, 
and  with  many  other  mammals,  all  of  which  agree  in 
the  possession  of  two  large  incisive  teeth  in  each  jaw, 


CHARACTERISTICS   AND   HABITAT. 


10 


separated  from  tlic  molnrfl  by  an  empty  npaco.  ThoHc 
incisors  are  the  diHtinctivc  eharaeteristic  upon  which 
the  order  is  founded.  With  jaws  thus  mounted,  the 
rodents  are  physically  incapable  of  seizing  a  living 
prey,  and  consequently  are  formed  to  draw  their  nu- 
triment from  the  vegetable  kingdom.  The  general 
characteristics  of  this  order  are  given  by  Cuvier  as 
follows : 

"Two  large  incisors  in  each  jaw,  separated  from 
the  molars  by  a  wide  interval,  cannot  well  seize  a 
living  prey  or  devour  tiesh.  They  are  unable  even 
to  cut  the  aliment;  but  they  serve  to  file,  and  by  con- 
tinued labor  to  reduce  it  into  small  particles;  in  a 
word,  to  gnaio  it;  hence  the  word  rodentki  applied  to 
animals  of  this  order;  it  is  thus  that  they  successfully 
attack  the  hardest  substances,  frequently  feeding  on 
wood  and  the  bark  of  trees.  The  better  to  accom- 
plish this  object,  these  incisors  have  enamel  only  in 
front,  so  that  their  posterior  edges  wearing  away  faster 
than  the  anterior,  they  are  always  naturally  sloped 
[or  chisel  like].  Their  prismatic  form  causes  them  to 
grow  from  the  root  as  fast  as  they  wear  away  from 
the  tip  [their  formative  pulp  being  persistent],  and 
this  tendency  to  increase  in  length  is  so  powerful  that 
if  either  of  them  be  lost  or  broken,  its  antagonist  in 
the  other  jaw,  having  nothing  to  oppose  or  commi- 
nute, becomes  developed  to  a  monstrous  extent.  The 
inferior  jaw  is  articulated  by  a  longitudinal  condyle 
in  such  a  way  as  to  allow  of  no  horizontal  motion, 
except  from  back  to  front,  and  mce  versa,  as  is  requis- 
ite for  the  action  of  gnawing.  The  molars  also  have 
flat  crowns,  the  enameled  eminences  of  which  are 
always  transversely,  so  as  to  be  in  opposition  to  the 


20 


TOE   AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


horizon tnl  movemunt  of  the  jftw,  and  better  to  assist 
trituration."'  mm*  * 

"Throughout  the  present  group,  the  brain  is  ahnost 
HmfM)t!i,  and  without  furrows.  *  *  *  jj^ 
a  word,  the  inferiority  of  these  animals  is  perceptible 
in  most  of  the  details  of  their  organization." 

Baird  remarks  upon  the  rodents:  "They  exist  in 
all  parts  of  the  world,  and  are  especially  abundant  in 
America,  which  contains  nearly  as  many  species  as  all 
the  rest  of  the  world  put  together.  South  America, 
however,  counts  more  species  than  the  northern  half 
of  the  New  World,  the  preponderance  being  caused 
principally  by  the  large  number  belonging  to  the  genus 
Ilesperomya,  of  which  our  little  deer-or  white-footed 
wood-mouse,  is  a  familiar  example."' 

Watorhouse  introduces  the  order  Rodentia  in  the 
following  language :  "  The  Hodentia,  so  called  from 
their  gnawing  propensities,  form  one  of  the  most 
clearly  defined  groups  of  the  mammalia;  a  group 
which  has  representatives  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
and  the  species  of  which  are  very  numerous.  They 
feed  upon  vegetable  substances,  and  are  of  small  size, 
few  exceeding  the  common  hare  in  bulk.  The  most 
striking  characters  of  the  rodents  are  those  furnished 
by  the  teeth;  the  long,  vacant  space  which  separates 
the  incisors  in  front,  here  adapted  for  gnawing,  from 
the  masticating  teeth  behind.  *         *        *        * 

Sometimes  the  width  of  the  incisor  is  very  great,  and 
exceeds  the  depth;  the  rodents  which  burrow,  and 
live  almost  entirely  under  ground,  present  this  form 


'  Animal  Kingdom.     Carpenter  and  Westwood  edition,  p.  107. 
'  ExploratioRs  for  a  Railroad  Roate,  etc.  to  the  Pacific,  viii.  236. 


COARACTERISTICS   AND   IIAUITAT. 


21 


of  incifiorH,  their  powerful  teeth  heing,  no  doubt,  use»l 
to  gnaw  through  the  rootH  wliieh  would  otlierwiwe 
obstruct  their  HubterrAiieau  eourwe.  *  *  * 
Those  of  the  upper  jaw  are  alwayH  nhorter  than  tliose 
of  the  lower,  and  UHually  dexcril)e  alM)ut  three  parts 
of  a  circle.  The  larger  incisors  of  the  lower  jaw  form 
a  smaller  segment  of  a  larger  circle."' 

Among  living  rodents  the  beaver  is  the  largest  with 
the  exception  of  the  capybara  of  South  Atiu'rica, 
which  is  about  one-third  larger.'  The  form  and 
general  appearance  of  the  American  lx»aver  are  well 
known.  His  color  is  a  reddish  brown,  but  varying 
in  some  localities  to  a  yellowish  tinge  upon  brown, 
and  in  others  to  a  glossy  black.  Roddish-brown, 
however,  is  the  prevailing  color.  I  have  two  |)elt8  in 
my  collection  of  a  dark  chestnut,  this  being  the  color 
of  the  coarse  fur  or  hair  which  in  all  cases  determines 
thi  general  color  of  the  skin.  The  fine  or  true  fur 
is  of  a  clear  uniform  brown  from  the  root  to  the  tip, 
and  the  staple  is  short.  It  varies  in  length  from  one- 
half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch,  while  the  coarse 
hairs,  which  resemble  bristles,  are  from  one  and  three- 
quarters  to  two  and  a  half  inches  in  length,  and  suf- 
ficiently abundant  to  completely  overspread  the  fur. 
Black  beavers  are  scarce,  and  appear  to  be  confined 
to  higher  northern  latitudes.  The  fact  that  they  are 
sometimes  found  of  this  color  is  attested  by  Hearne. 
"Black  beaver,"  he  remarks,  "and  that  of  a  beautiful 


'  Nat.  Hist,  of  the  Mammalia.     Lond.  ed.,  1848,  ii.  1. 
*  One  shot  by  Darwin  at  Montevideo  weighed  90  pounds. 


In 

general  appearance  it  resembles  the  hare  much  more  than  the 
beaver. 


S  t 


i' 


M 


22 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


gloss,  are  not  uncommon;  perhaps  they  are  more 
plentiful  at  Churchill  than  at  any  other  factory  in  the 
bay;  but  it  is  rare  to  get  more  than  twelve  or  fifteen 
of  their  skins  in  the  course  of  one  year's  trade."'  The 
skin  of  the  foetal  beaver,  of  which  I  have  two  speci- 
mens in  my  collection,  is  covered  with  a  thick  fur, 
which  is  soft  and  silky  to  the  touch,  and  of  a  clear 
brown,  with  a  slightly  reddish  tinge.  In  these  skins  the 
coarse  hairs  are  undeveloped.  Albinos  are  occasionally 
found,  but  they  are  rare.  Upon  this  subject  the  same 
author  remarks :  "  In  the  course  of  twenty  years'  ex- 
perience in  the  countries  about  Hudson's  Bay,  though 
I  have  traveled  six  hundred  miles  to  the  west  of  the 
sea-coast,  I  never  saw  but  one  white  beaver  skin,  and 
it  had  many  reddish  and  brown  hairs  along  the  ridge 
of  the  back.  The  sides  of  the  belly  were  of  a  glossy 
silvery  wbite."^  Prince  Maximilian  speaks  of  white 
beaver  as  occasionally  found  upon  the  Yellowstone 
River.  He  says:  "I  saw  one  beautifully  spotted  with 
white;  yellowish-white  and  pure  white  are  not  unfre- 
quently  caught  on  the  Yellowstone.'"  The  skin  of 
the  beaver  when  tanned  is  thicker  than  the  thickest 
calf  skin,  and  coarse  in  texture. 

When  full  grown,  the  weight  of  the  American 
beaver  varies  from  thirty  to  sixty  pounds,  the  latter 
weight  being  rarely  attained.  The  weight  of  the 
three  largest  Lake  Superior  beavers  of  which  I  have 
reliable  knowledge,  was  fifty-eight  pounds  each  to  two 


'  Ilearne's  Journey  to  the  Northern  Ocean.     Dublin  ed,,  1796, 
p.  241. 

■'  Ibid.,  240. 

^  Travels  in  North  America.     Lond.  ed.,  1843,  p.  332. 


I'i 


CHARACTERISTICS  AND  HABITAT. 


23 


of  them,  and  sixty  pounds  for  the  third.*  One  mounted 
specimen  in  my  collection  was  a  full-grown  three- 
year  old  beaver  when  taken,  and  weighed  thirty-five 
pounds.  He  measured  from  the  tip  of  the  nose  to  the 
end  of  the  tail,  three  feet  and  eight  inches ;  around 
the  centre  of  the  abdomen  two  feet  and  one  inch  ;  and 
around  the  head,  back  of  the  ears,  one  foot  and  two 
inches.  That  part  of  the  tail  which  is  covered  with 
scales  measured  nine  inches  in  length,  and  four  and  a 
half  in  width  at  the  centre,  from  which  point  it  nar- 
rowed in  bo+h  directions.  A  second  mounted  speci- 
men, also  in  my  collection,  and  a  male,  weighed,  when 
taken,  thirty-two  pounds,  and  measured  in  his  greatest 
length  three  feet  six  and  a  quarter  inches;  around 
the  centre  of  the  abdomen  two  feet  two  and  a  half 
inches;  and  around  the  neck,  back  of  the  ears,  one 
foot  two  and  a  half  inches.  A  third  niounted  speci- 
men, the  one  represented  in  Plate  I.,  and  also  in  my 
collection,  was  a  two-year  old  beaver,  and  a  female, 
and  weighed  twenty-nine  and  a  half  pounds.  She 
measured  in  her  greatest  length  three  feet  six  and  a 
quarter  inches ;  around  the  centre  of  the  abdomen  two 
feet ;  and  around  the  neck,  back  of  ears,  one  foot  one 
inch.  The  skeleton  represented  in  Plate  III.,  now  in 
my  collection,  is  that  of  a  fenwile  beaver,  full  grown, 
and  three  years  old  and  upwards.  She  weighed  forty- 
three  and  a  half  pounds,  and  measured  in  her  greatest 
length  three  feet  six  inches;  around  the  centre  of  the 
abdomen  two  feet  and  six  inches;  and  around  the 
neck,  back  of  ears,  one  foot  three  inches.  That  part 
of  the  tail  covered  with  scales  measured  ten  inches  in 


'  One  caught  by  Capt.  Daniel  Wilson  weighed  58  pounds,  and 
two  by  John  Armstrong  weighed  respectively  58  and  GO  pounds. 


11l 


p 


24 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


length,  and  five  and  a  half  inches  at  its  greatest 
width.  Another  beaver,  whose  pelt  I  have,  weighed 
thirty-three  and  a  half  pounds.  It  was  caught  in 
the  year  18C2,  upon  the  same  dam  and  at  the  same 
time  with  the  one  whose  skeleton  is  shown,  and 
was  probably  her  mate,  and  if  so,  a  male.  These 
beavers,  all  of  which  were  taken  on  the  south  shore 
of  Lake  Superior,  may  be  regarded  as  average  speci- 
mens of  the  beaver  of  this  locality.  From  a  compar- 
ison of  their  skulls  with  others  in  my  collection  from 
the  same  district,  sixty  pounds  is  not  an  improbable 
weight  in  occasional  instances.  The  skull  belonging 
to  the  skeleton  referred  to,  and  which  is  No.  4  in  the 
Table  of  Measurements  prepared  by  Dr.  Ely  (Appendix 
A,  note  1),  measures  4-1%%  inches  from  the  end  of  the 
nasal  bones  to  the  occipital  ridge,  while  that  marked 
No.  40  in  same  table  measures  SfYV  inches.  As  the  for- 
mer beaver  weighed  forty-three  pounds,  it  is  a  reason- 
able inference  that  the  latter  must  have  weighed  at 
least  sixty  pounds.  The  beavers  of  the  Upper  Mis- 
souri are  about  the  same  size,  while  those  in  Oregon 
and  California  are  said  to  attain  a  larger  average  size, 
with  how  much  of  truth  I  cannot  state.  Brandt,  in 
his  elaborate  work  on  the  Rodents,  and  which  is  par- 
ticularly full  upon  the  beaver,  concludes,  after  a  com- 
parison of  a  large  number  of  specimens,  that  the 
Asiatic,  European,  and  American  beavers  are  not  dis- 
tinguishable from  each  other  in  size.^ 
"  In  form  the  beaver  is  short  between  the  fore  and 
hind  legs,  broad,  heavy,  and  clumsy,  and  his  motions 
are  slow  and  awkward.     He  walks  with  a  waddling 

'  Memoires  de  I'Academie  Imperiale  des  Sciences  de  St.  Peters- 
boarg     Sixth  Series.     Sciences  Naturelles,  tome  vii.  p.  61. 


CHARACTERISTICS   AND   HABITAT. 


25 


gait,  with  his  back  slightly  arched,  with  his  body 
barely  clearing  the  ground,  and  his  tail  dragging  upon 
it.  He  runs  slowly,  with  alternating  steps,  but  when  he 
makes  his  most  rapid  movement,  it  is  by  the  regular 
quadruped  gallop,  the  fore  feet  being  raised  together 
and  followed  in  the  same  manner  by  the  hind.  An 
ordinary  dog  could  overtake  him  in  a  short  chase.  In 
the  water,  however,  his  motions  are  free  and  graceful. 
Water  is  his  natural  element,  and  he  cannot  trust 
himself  far  from  it  with  personal  safety.  The  usual 
representations  of  the  beaver  show  a  gradual  increase 
in  the  size  of  the  body  from  the  head  to  the  thighs, 
with  the  posterior  portion  much  the  Largest.  While 
the  hips  are  broader  than  the  shoulders,  he  is  the 
largest  around  the  centre  of  the  abdomen,  from  which 
the  body  tapers  in  both  direction  ^  but  more  forward 
than  back. 

Some  of  the  details  of  the  structural  organization 
of  the  beaver  are  of  a  striking  character.  The  mus- 
cles which  regulate  the  movements  of  the  inferior 
jaw  are  large  and  powerful,  as  may  be  inferred  from 
the  relative  size  of  the  head,  and  particularly  from 
the  measurements  of  the  neck  immediately  behind 
the  ears.  This  jaw  has  a  free  horizontal  movement 
from  side  to  side,  as  well  as  forward  and  back,  the 
inferior  incisors  moving  both  to  the  right  and  to  the 
left  of  the  superior,  thus  enabling  the  beaver  to  mas- 
ticate his  food  by  a  transverse  and  diagonal  as  well  as 
forward  and  back  movement  of  the  molars  on  each 
other.  Incapacity  for  this  transverse  movement  of 
the  inferior  jaw  is  made  one  of  the  characteristics  of 
the  rodent  order.  Cuvier  deduced  its  necessary  move- 
ments from  the  nature  of  its  articulation,  and  from 


26 


THE  AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


if 

8  ! 

I 


! 


/ 


the  main  direction  of  the  enameled  eminences  of  the 
molar  teeth,  and  then  limited  its  horizontal  move- 
ment to  a  single  direction,  which  was  forward  and 
back.  The  American  beaver  is  an  exception  to  the 
general  rule.'  The  powerful  muscles,  before  referred 
to,  give  to  this  animal  the  "horrid  bite"  [horrendus 
morsiw),  to  use  the  language  of  Pliny,  for  which  his 
tree-cuttings,  if  not  his  combative  propensities,  show 
him  to  be  distinguished.  Each  condyle  is  movable 
upon  its  fulcrum,  which  is  a  plain  surface,  and  must 
be  held  with  immense  strength  to  sustain  the  grasj) 
of  tliG  incisors  while  in  the  act  of  cutting  down  trees. 
In  swimming,  the  propelling  power  is  furnished  by 
the  hind  legs.  To  adapt  their  feet  for  this  purpose 
they  are  completely  webbed  to  the  roots  of  the  claws, 
and  are  capable  of  a  lateral  spread  of  eight  or  nine 
inches  on  the  exterior  line  of  the  membrane.  The 
legs  are  thrown  out  behind,  in  the  act  of  swimming, 
like  those  of  a  duck,  and  nearly  in  a  horizontal  line. 
While  swimming,  the  fore  feet  are  not  used,  but  are 
pressed  back  against  the  abdomen,^  their  smallness 
rendering  them  nearly  useless  for  this  purpose.  Dr. 
Ely,  however,  discovered  a  rudimentary  membrane 
between  the  fore  fingers  of  these  paws  which  is  par- 
ticularly conspicuous  between  the  second  and  third. 
The  paws  are  very  small  relatively  to  the  size  of  the 
animal,  and  very  much  smaller  than  the  hind  feet ; 
but  as  they  are  capable  of  a  very  considerable  rotary 
movement,  he  is  able  to  hold  sticks  and  limbs  of  trees, 

^  The  squirrel,  the  rabbit,  and  the  rat  also  appear  to  be  excep- 
tions. 

'  The  otter  is  a  more  rapid  swimmer  than  the  beaver,  but  does 
not  use  his  fore  feet,  which  are  placed  In  the  same  position. 


Jhnr/i  a  ff'oU'qrapt: 


fS  l/umJ.  Son  *  a  mit 


TAIL  of   BEAVER.  H  Jiat.w../.^^ 


CHARACTERISTICS   AND  HABITAT. 


27 


and  to  handle  them  with  great  dexterity  while  cut- 
ting them,  and  also  to  carry  mud  and  stones.  As  he 
is  capable  of  sitting  up  erect  upon  his  hind  legs,  and 
of  walking  upon  them,  his  paws  are  thus  liberated, 
and  by  that  means  his  architectural  skill  is  rendered 
possible.  Man's  great  superiority  over  the  inferior 
animals  is  shown  in  nothing  more  conspicuously  than 
in  the  freedom  of  his  hands. 

The  beaver  is  a  burrowing  animal,  his  normal  hab- 
itation being  the  burrow  rather  than  the  lodge.  To 
enable  him  to  excavate  the  large  chambers  under 
ground,  hereafter  described,  his  paws  are  armed  with 
claws  which  are  long,  curving,  and  strong.  In  a  full- 
grown  beaver,  the  claw  upon  the  third  finger  measures 
seven-eighths  of  an  inch.  Those  upon  the  hind  feet 
are  still  longer  and  broader,  and  equally  well  adapted 
to  assist  in  excavating  burrows.  Upon  the  second 
toe  of  each  hind  foot  there  is  an  extra  claw,  set  im- 
mediately under  the  true  one  and  transversely.  It  is 
very  thin,  broad,  and  round  edged,  and  projects  nearly 
to  the  tip  of  the  claw.     It  is  peculiar  to  this  animal. 

In  its  form,  structure,  and  uses,  the  tail,  of  which 
a  representation  will  be  found  in  Plate  II.,  is  the 
most  conspicuous  organ  of  the  beaver.  It  is  nearly  flat, 
broad,  and  straight,  and  covered  with  horny  scales  of 
a  lustrous  black.  These  scales,  which  are  such  in  ap- 
pearance only,  cover  every  portion  of  the  surface  both 
above  and  underneath.  The  tail  is  attached  to  a  pos- 
terior projection  of  the  body  extending  some  inches 
beyond  the  pelvis,  and  is  furnished  with  strong  mus- 
cular attachments,  by  means  of  which  its  movements 
are  determined.  Its  principal  uses  are  to  elevate  or 
depress  the  head  while  swimming,  to  turn  the  body 


11' 


28 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


■I 
I 


and  vary  its  direction,  and  to  assist  the  animal  in 
diving.  It  is  also  used  to  give  a  signal  of  alarm  to 
its  mates.  When  alarmed  in  his  pond,  particularly  at 
night,  he  immediately  dives,  in  doing  which  the  pos- 
terior part  of  his  body  is  thrown  out  of  water,  and, 
as  he  descends  head  foremost,  the  tail  is  brought  down 
upon  the  surface  of  the  water  with  a  heavy  stroke, 
and  deep  below  it  with  a  plunge.  The  violence  of 
the  blow  is  shown  by  the  spray  which  is  thrown  up 
two  or  three  feet  high.  While  watching  upon  their 
dams  at  night  I  have  been  startled  by  this  tremendous 
stroke,  which,  in  the  stillness  of  the  hour,  seemed 
like  a  pistol  shot.  I  have  heard  it  distinctly  for  half 
a  mile,  and  think  it  can  be  lieard  twice  or  three  times 
that  distance  under  favorable  conditions.  On  the 
Upper  Missouri,  beavers  are  frequently  seen  in  the 
river  by  day,  or  basking  in  the  sun  under  its  banks. 
I  have  seen  them  dive  in  this  river  in  the  daytime, 
and  without  giving  the  signal  stroke.  In  such  cases, 
their  motions,  in  going  under,  are  quick  and  graceful, 
the  upper  line  of  the  body,  from  the  head  to  the  tail, 
coming  into  view  in  a  curve,  although  but  one-third 
of  their  length  is  above  the  surface  at  one  time. 
While  swimming  in  a  direct  course,  with  the  head 
above  the  water,  the  tail  is  not  used,  but  is  extended 
motionless  behind.  It  is  capable  of  a  diagonal  move- 
ment from  one  side  to  the  other,  and  vice  versa,  and 
also  of  assuming  a  nearly  vertical  position.  This  en- 
ables them  to  use  it  as  a  scull,  which  they  do  when 
entirely  under  water,  and  swimming  at  the  most 
rapid  rate.  It  is  most  flexible  at  the  intersection 
of  the  tail  proper  with  the  posterior  projection  of 
the  body  to  which  it  is  attached.     The  muscles  for 


CHARACTERISTICS  AND   HABITAT. 


29 


its  down  motion  are  several  times  stronger  than  for 
either  its  upward  or  lateral  movements.  He  is  able 
to  turn  his  tail  under  him  and  sit  upon  it,  or  to  use 
it  extended  behind  him  as  a  prop  while  sitting  up 
upon  his  hind  feet.  Young  beavers,  while  feeding 
or  resting,  usually  swing  their  tails  around  by  their 
side  in  the  same  manner  as  a  cat,  but  with  the  lower 
surface  uppermost.  It  has  often  been  asserted  that 
the  beaver  uses  his  tail  as  a  trowel  in  preparing  mor- 
tar from  mud.  This  mistake  is  sufficiently  explained 
by  stating  that  he  uses  mud  and  soft  earth,  sometimes 
intermixed  with  roots  and  grass,  precisely  as  he  finds 
them,  and  without  any  preparation  whatever,  for 
their  conversion  into  mortar.  But  he  uses  his  tail  to 
pack  and  compress  mud  and  earth  while  constructing 
a  lodge  or  dam,  which  he  effects  by  heavy  and  re- 
peated down  strokes.  It  performs  in  this  respect  a 
most  important  office,  and  one  not  unlike  some  of  the 
uses  of  the  trowel. 

The  eye  of  the  beaver  is  disproportionately  small, 
the  optic  nerve  a  mere  thread,  and  its  foramen  one 
of  the  smallest  in  the  skull.  As  his  vision  is  of  short 
range,  he  does  not  rely  upon  this  sense  except  with 
reference  to  near  objects.  On  the  contrary,  his  hear- 
ing is  very  acute.  The  auditory  tube,  which  is  usu- 
ally about  half  an  inch  in  length,  terminates  in  a 
tympanic  cavity,  or  bulla,  of  nearly  globular  form, 
and  large  relatively  to  the  size  of  the  skull.  It  is 
considerably  larger  than  in  man,  and  its  size  is,  to 
some  extent,  the  measure  of  the  strength  of  this 
sense.  This  provision  to  intensify  the  hearing  is, 
however,  equally  conspicuous  among  the  carnivora. 
Upon  this  sense  the  beaver  relies  to  a  much  greater 


30 


THE   AMEUICAN   BEAVER. 


extent  than  upon  his  siglit.  He  Hits  up  on  his  hind 
legs  to  listen,  whicli  is  his  usual  position  when  on  the 
alert  or  suspicious  of  danger,  lie  will  often  select  a 
slightl3'^  elevated  and  exposed  position,  and,  sitting  up, 
listen  for  a  considerable  time  and  th(ui  retire,  but  to 
return  at  intervals  and  repeat  the  observation  until 
satisfied  whether  or  not  danger  is  near.  Since  this 
attitude  is  one  expressive  of  intelligence,  as  well  as 
the  one  in  whicli  his  form  is  seen  at  the  best  advant- 
age, I  have  adopted  it  in  the  engraving  (Plate  I.)  as 
the  most  suitable  for  his  representation. 

Scarcely  inferior  to  this  sense  in  power  is  that  of 
smell,  which  is  abundantly  attested  by  the  structure 
of  the  nasal  organs.  The  cavity  occupied  by  the  eth- 
moid and  turbinated  bones  is  but  little  inferior  in  size 
to  that  in  which  the  brain  is  enveloped.  As  these 
bones  are  laminated,  the  superficial  surface  of  mem- 
brane ex'^osed  to  the  air  is  very  large.  It  is  evident 
from  structural  considerations  that  smell  and  hearing 
are  the  principal  informing  senses  of  the  beaver. 

Their  social  propensities  furnish  another  character- 
istic. They  pair,  and  with  their  offspring  live  in  the 
family  relations  until  the  latter  attain  maturity,  when 
they  are  forced  to  leave  the  parent  lodge.  It  usually 
happens  that  two  or  more  such  families  inhabit  the 
same  pond,  and  contribute  their  labor  to  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  dam,  whence  the  common  and  nearly 
universal  opinion  that  they  live  and  act  in  colonies, 
or  associated  in  villages.  This  is  altogether  an  over- 
statement. Each  family  has  its  own  lodge  and  bur- 
rows, and  its  separate  stock  of  winter  provisions ;  and 
there  iy  no  authentic  evidence  of  any  concert  of  ac- 
tion among   several   families,  either  in  building   or 


hi ' 


CHARACTERISTICS   AND   HABITAT. 


81 


repairing  dams.  If  such  iiiMtancos  have  ocourrod 
tiioy  niiLst  1)0  exceptional.  ThiH  .subject  will  be  re- 
ferred to  again. 

It  iw  extremely  diflicult  without  dissection  to  de- 
termine the  sex  of  beavers,  as  they  are  monotrema- 
tous,  and  there  is  nothing  in  their  general  app<arance 
to  indicate  the  difference.  The  female  brings  forth 
her  young  usually  in  May,  and  from  two  to  five  and 
sometimes  six  at  a  time.  In  some  rare  instances  eight 
have  been  found  ni  a  foetal  state  among  tho  l)eavers 
of  Lake  Superior,  and  the  same  number  born  alive  in 
the  lodge.  Upon  thi.s  subject  Ilearne  remarks:  "The 
Indians,  by  killing  them  in  all  stages  of  gestation, 
have  abundant  opportunities  of  ascertaining  the  usual 
number  of  their  offsjjring.  I  have  seen  some  hun- 
dreds of  them  killed  at  the  seasons  favorable  lor  these 
observations,  and  never  could  discover  more  than  six 
young  in  one  female,  and  that  only  in  two  instances ; 
for  the  usual  number,  as  I  have  before  observed,  is 
from  two  to  five."'  The  female  has  but  four  nipples, 
two  between  the  shoulders  and  two  a  few  inches  back 
of  them.  At  six  weeks,  a  young  beaver,  captured 
and  domesticated,  will  wean  itself  and  take  to  bark. 
The  period  of  gestation  is  from  three  to  four  months, 
and  the  ordinary  duration  of  their  lives  from  twelve 
to  fifteen  years. 

The  habitat  of  the  American  beaver  is  unusually 
broad.  It  is  not  surpassed  oy  that  of  any  other 
animal  upon  the  continent,  the  deer  and  the  fox  not 
excepted.  He  was  found  from  the  confines  of  the 
Arctic  Sea  on  the  north,  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the 


'  Hearne's  Journey,  p.  241.  . 


82 


THE    AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


Rio  Grando,  and  the  Gila  rivers  on  the  hoiuIi,  and 
south werd  of  these  ranges  in  TainauiipaH  in  Mexico, 
which  is  the  HouthernmoHt  [wintto  whicli  h(^  has  heon 
definitely  traced.  Throughout  all  the  intermediate 
areas,  from  Hudson's  Bay  and  the  Atlantic  on  tho 
east,  to  the  Pacific  on  the  west,  he  was  found  dis- 
trihuted  at  the  several  epochs  of  European  discovery. 
Climatically  ho  may  bo  said  to  belong  to  the  temper- 
ate regions,  from  which  his  spread  northward  within 
the  Arctic  Circle  and  southward  into  Mexico  is  doubt- 
less ascribable  to  the  courses  of  the  rivers  and  to  his 
aquatic  habits.  Beavers  were  found  in  the  greatest 
numbers  in  the  thick  wood  country  around  Hudson's 
Bay,  one-half  of  which,  according  to  Sir  George  Simp- 
son, is  underwater;  around  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior, 
upon  the  head  waters  of  the  Missouri  and  the  Siskatch- 
ewun,'  and  upon  the  tributaries  of  the  Columbia.  The 
regions  bordering  on  the  Yukon,  on  the  upper  part  of 
Mackenzie  River,  on  Frazer's  River,  and  on  the  Sacra- 
mento were  also  notable  for  beavers.  New  England, 
New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  the  Canadas  were  less 
abundantly  but  very  well  supplied  at  the  p.  ^Ijd  of  col- 
onization. Southward,  toward  the  Gulf,  tiiey  were  less 
numerous,  and  in  the  vast  prairie  area  in  the  interior 
of  the  continent  they  were  confined,  of  course,  to  the 
margins  of  the  rivers.  With  the  commencement  of 
colonization  their  habitat  began  to  contract.  They 
have  now  substantially  disappeared  from  the  United 
States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  except  in  the 
States  of  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and  Iowa; 
and  iu  the  Territories  of  Nebraska,  Dakota,  Idaho, 


'  Kis-sis-katch'-e-wun,  "  Swift  Water."  Cree  Dialect. 


rilARACTERISTICS   AND   IIAUITAT. 


33 


Montana,  nnd  Ci)lora(lo.  Tliey  are  ntill  occasionally 
scon  in  Maine,  New  York,  and  Virginia.  In  the 
IIutlHon'H  Bay  Territory,  and  in  Honu»  portions  of  tlio 
CanadaM,  and  wt»Mtof  the  niountainH  in  Ori'gon,  Wash- 
ington, California,  and  Nevada  they  are  wtill  nnmer- 
ous.  They  arc  also  still  abnndant  on  the  Houth 
shore  «.»f  Lake  Su|)erior  in  Upper  Michigan,  where 
their  works,  in  liuinbers  and  niagnitnde,  are  not  sur- 
passed by  those  of  any  otht^r  beaver  district  in  North 
America. 

Their  immense  numbers  in  former  periods  are  suffi- 
ciently attested  by  the  statistics  of  the  fur  trade,  of 
which  some  notice  will  be  given  in  a  subsequent  chap- 
ter. The  earliest  colonists  found  in  their  rich  furs 
their  first  exportable  merchandise;  and  thus  this  ani- 
mal contributed,  with  his  life,  in  no  inconsiderable 
degree,  to  the  colonization  and  permanent  settlement 
of  the  Canadas  and  the  United  States. 

The  habitat  of  the  European  beaver  was  as  wide- 
spread as  that  of  the  American.  He  was  found  in 
tho  British  Islands,  in  all  parts  of  the  European  Con- 
tinent, in  Siberia,  and  southward,  in  Asia  Minor,  to 
the  Euphrates.  He  is  now  extinct  in  Europe,  except 
upon  some  of  the  larger  rivers  of  tlie  Continent,  and 
in  some  portions  of  Russia.  In  Scotland  and  Wales 
he  was  found  as  late  as  the  twelfth  century.  He  is 
still  found  in  Siberia. 

There  are  marked  differences  in  the  habits  of  the 
American  and  European  beavers,  although  it  is  doubt- 
ful whether  the  species  are  distinct.  The  European 
beaver  is  said  to  lead  a  solitary  life  in  burrows, 
rarely  constructing  lodges  or  dams;  while  the  Ameri- 
can beaver  is  pre-eminently  a  builder  of  both  dar^-^ 

8 


m 


•i^i:  fffmnbiw^e^u.:,, 


WB 


V'- 

hi 


34 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


^  I 


N  ! 


and  lodges.  M.  Myerink,  of  Berlin,  described,  in 
1829,  the  operations  of  a  small  number  of  European 
beavers  established  on  the  River  Nuthe,  an  affluent 
of  the  Elbe,  which  consisted  in  the  construction  of 
burrows  and  lodges,  and  of  a  small  dike  or  dam 
about  a  foot  high.'  This  last  act  was  evidently  re- 
garded as  noteworthy,  if  not  exceptional.  Instances 
of  this  kind  of  work  appear  to  be  rare  on  the  part 
of  the  European  beaver,  while  the  American  turns 
the  smaller  streams,  by  means  of  dams,  into  a  series 
of  ponds,  one  above  the  other,  for  miles  together. 
The  region  around  the  Black  Sea  was  famous  for 
beavers  in  the  classical  period,  whence  he  was  called 
by  Pliny  the  "Pontic  beaver."  In  his  brief  account 
of  this  animal,  he  describes  his  practice  of  cutting 
down  trees,  but  is  silent  upon  the  far  more  remark- 
able performance  of  constructing  dams  for  the  pur- 
pose of  forming  artificial  ponds.  No  other  Roman, 
and  no  Greek  author,  as  far  as  I  am  aware,  makes 
mention  of  this  practice.  If  the  European  beaver 
had  been  a  dam-builder  to  any  considerable  extent, 
the  fact  would  not,  probably,  have  escaped  the  notice 
of  this  indefatigable  investigator.'^    It  is  surprising 

^  Bennett's  Garden  and  Menagerie  of  the  Zoological  Society 
Delineated.     Quadrupeds,  i.  158. 

'  Easdem  partes  sibi  ipsi  Pontic!  amputant  fibri,  pericnlo  ur- 
gent8,*ab  hoc  se  peti  gnari;  Castoreum  id  vocant  niedici ;  alias 
animal  horrendi  morsus,  arbores  juxta  flumina,  ut  ferro,  caedit ;  ho- 
mines parte  comprehensa,  non  antequam  fracta  concrepuerint 
ossa,  roorsus  resolvit,  Cauda  piscium  iis,  cetera  species  Intrse, 
Utramque  aquaticum  ;  Utrique  Mollior  pluma  pilus. — Plin.  Nat. 
Hist.,  Lib.  viii.  c.  xlvii,  ^ 

The  ancients  confounded  the  testes  with  the  castor  sacs,  and 
perpetuated  as  credible  this  conceit  of  self-amputation.     Herodo- 


L\il>0 


CHARACTERISTICS   AND  HABITAT. 


how  little  can  be  gleaned  from  the  Greek  authors  with 
reference  to  the  beaver.  Herodotus  speaks  of  him 
(iv.  109)  as  a  well-known  animal,  but  without  giving 
any  particulars.  ^Elian  describes  him  (Hist.  Anim., 
Lib.  vi.  c.  xxxiv.)  as  aquatic  in  his  habits,  spending 
the  daytime  concealed  in  the  rivers,  and  roving  by 
night  upon  the  land.  Strabo  (Geograph,,  iii.  163) 
contents  himself  with  pronouncing  the  castoreum  of 
the  Spanish  inferior  to  that  of  the  Pontic  beaver; 
while  Aristotle  knew  so  little  with  reference  to  him 
that  he  describes  the  same  animal  under  the  names  of 
castor  {xdffTtop)  and  latax  {xdra^)  as  two  diflferent 
animals.^ 


tus  is  one  of  the  oldest  authorities  for  the  mistake  first  mentioned. 
Book  17.  ^.  109. 
Thus  Ovid— 

Sic,  ubi  detracta  est  a  te  tibi  caassa  pericli, 

Quod  saperest,  tatam,  Pootice  castor,  ^abes. 

Nux  Elegia,  165. 
And  Juvenal — 

— imitatus  castora,  que  se 

Eunuchnm  ipse  facit,  cupiens  evadere  damno 

Testiculi,  adeo  medicatum  intelligit  unguen. 

Sat.,  xii.  34. 

Pliny,  however,  elsewhere  states  that  Sextus,  a  Roman  physi- 
cian, questioned  the  truth  of  this  statement.  Vide  Lib.  xxxix.  c. 
xiii. 

'  "Certain  wild  quadrupeds,"  he  remarks,  "also  seek  food 
around  the  lakes  and  rivers,  but  around  no  sea,  the  searcalf  (seal) 
excepted.  Of  this  genus  are  the  beaver  (xdarmp)  and  satherion 
(ffaOsptov),  and  satyr  {aarupiov),  and  otter  {ivuSpoi^),  and  lata^ 
{kdra^),  which  is  broader  than  the  otter,  and  provided  with  teeth 
very  much  more  robust.  Going  forth  commonly  by  night,  it 
eats  off  the  nearest  bushes  with  its  teeth.  The  otter  also  bites 
men,  nor,  as  they  say,  does  he  loose  his  hold  before  he  shall  have 


86 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


Another  interesting  fact  with  reference  to  the  bea- 
ver is  that  of  his  great  antiquity  upon  the  earth.  A 
presumption  to  this  effect  would  arise  from  his  coarse 
subsistence  and  his  aquatic  habits;  but  it  is  confirmed 
by  decisive  evidence.  Both  the  European  and  Amer- 
ican beavers  are  found  in  a  fossil  state,  and  under  con- 
ditions which  establish  for  each  of  them  a  very  ancient 
epoch  for  their  first  existence  among  living  animals. 
Upon  the  European  fossil  beaver,  Owen  observes: 
"  That  the  present  European  beaver  is  not  the  degen- 
erate descendant  of  the  great  Trogontlierium  is  proved, 
not  only  by  the  differences  in  the  dental  structure 
pointed  out  in  the  preceding  section,  but  likewise  by 
the  fact  that  beavers  in  no  respect  differing  in  size  or 
anatomical  characters  from  the  Castor  Europsem  of  the 
present  day,  coexisted  with  the  Trogcntherium.  Re- 
mains of  the  beaver  have  been  discovered  by  Mr. 
Green  in  the  same  fossilized  condition,  and  under  cir- 
cumstances indicative  of  equal  antiquity  with  tiie 
extinct  mammoth,  in  the  lacustrine  formations  at 
Bacton.  *  *  *  Remains  of  the  beaver  have  been 
found  associated  with  those  of  the  mammoth,  hippo- 
potamus, rhinoceros,  hyena,  and  other  extinct  mam- 
mals, in  the  pleistocene  fresh-water  or  drift  formations 
of  the  Vald'Arno;  and  remains  of  both  Trogontlterium 
and  Castor  were  found  fossil  by  Dr.  Schmerling  in  the 
ossiferous  caverns  in  the  neighborhood  of  Liege.    *   * 

heard  the  cracking  from  the  bones.  The  hair  of  the  latax,  which 
is  intermediate  between  that  of  the  deer  and  seal,  is  rough." 
(nep\  Zmtov  0.  C  Sean.  vii.  5.  Ed.  Schneid.  i.  p.  362.)  Pliny,  by 
some  misapprehension,  speaks  {supra)  of  the  beaver  as  having 
the  same  pertinacioas  bite  ascribed  properly  by  Aristotle  to  the 
otter. 


POSITION   IN  ANIMAL  KINGDOM. 


37 


But  the  most  common  situation  in  which  the  remains 
of  the  beaver  are  found  in  this  island,  as  on  the  Con- 
tinent, is  the  turbary  peat-bog,  or  moss-pit.  *  *  * 
Reuiains  of  the  Castor  Earopsciis  have  been  found  at 
the  depth  of  eight  feet  and  a  half  beneath  peat,  rest- 
ing upon  a  stratum  of  clay,  with  much  decayed  and 
seemingly  charred  wood,  associated  with  remains  of 
megaceros,  or  great  Irish  deer,  at  Higley,  Norfolk."' 

Bea\er-gnawed  wood  was  found  in  the  same  cavity 
with,  and  five  feet .  '>ove  the  skeleton  of  the  mastodon 
disco  7ered  in  1867,  at  Cohoes,  near  Albany,  New  York. 
This  wood,  which  was  first  noticed  by  Dr.  S.  B.  Wool- 
worfch,  is  now  in  the  State  Cabinet  of  Natural  History. 
It  appeal's  from  the  description  of  Prof.  James  Hall, 
who  personally  superintended  the  removal  of  the  prin- 
cipal bones,  that  this  mastodon  was  found  in  a  pothole 
excavated  in  the  shale  rock  (Hudson  River  group), 
and  more  than  forty  feet  below  the  surface.  The 
remains  were  imbedded  in  clay  and  river  ooze,  resting 
upon  gravel,  and  covered  with  an  accumulation  of 
peat.  In  the  presence  of  this  beaver-gnawed  wood 
so  near  the  mastodon,  some  evidence  is  furnished  that 
the  beaver  and  the  mastodon  were  contemporaneous.* 

The  fossil  remains  of  the  Trogontherium  were  first 
discovered  by  Fischer  on  the  borders  of  the  Sea  of  Azof, 
and  afterward  in  various  parts  of  England.  Cuvier 
placed  him  in  the  genus  Castor,  and  gave  the  name 


'  British  Fossil  Mammals  and  Birds.  Lond.  ed.,  1846,  p.  190. 

■  Prof.  Hall,  in  describing  the  position  and  relations  in  which 
this  skeleton  was  found,  remarks :  "  In  the  peaty  deposits*  where 
these  bones  have  occurred,  the  remains  of  recent  or  existing  vege- 
tation are  present;  and  the  relations  of  these  deposits  show  very 
clearly  that  the  surface  of  the  country  has  undergone  no  important 


88 


TEE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


/ 


Upon  Fischer's  description.  Owen  afterward,  by  means 
of  additional  specimens,  detected  variations  in  the 
forms  of  the  jaws  and  teeth  which  led  him  to  question 
this  classification,  and  to  assert  a  sub-generic  position 
for  this  animal.  He  remarks :  "  The  well-marked  dif- 
ferences which  the  English  fossils  have  demonstrated, 
not  only  in  the  proportions,  but  in  the  form  and  struc- 
ture of  the  teeth  of  the  Trogontherium,  will,  I  trust, 
be  allowed  to  yield  the  same  grounds  for  its  sub-gen- 
eric distinction  as  has  been  proposed  or  accepted  by 
the  best  modern  zoologists  for  the  subdivisions  of  the 
same  value  in  the  rest  of  the  rodent  order."^  The 
Trogontherium  was  about  one-fifth  larger  than  the  Eu- 
ropean beaver,  the  skull  measuring  seven  inches  and 
three  lines  from  the  occipital  ridge  to  the  most  convex 
part  of  the  incisors. 

Since  both  the  European  beaver  and  the  Trogon- 
iherium  have  been  found  in  a  fossilized  state  in  the 
newer  pliocene  formations,  and  in  deposits  which 
have  yialded  remains  not  only  of  the  mammoth  and 
the  rhinoceros,  but  also  of  the  mastodon,  and  since 
there  is  evidence  tending  to  show  that  the  American 
beaver  was  cotemporaneous  with  the  mastodon,  the 
generic  type  of  Castor,  and  also  the  family  type  of 
Castoridss  are  thus  carried  far  back  into  the  tertiary 
period. 

Upon  the  American  Continent  the  American  bea- 


modification  since  the  period  of  the  mastoaon.  This  animal,  and 
the  fossil  elephant,  Elephus  primigeneus,  were  coeval  with  the 
existing  flora  and  the  present  conditions  of  the  surface  of  the  con- 
tinent ;  and  there  are  no  reasons,  geologically,  why  they  may  not 
have  coexisted  with  the  hnman  race." 
'  British  Fossil  Mammals  and  Birds,  p.  188. 


POSITION   IN   ANIMAL   KINGDOM.  89 

ver  has  likewise  been  found  in  a  fossil  state.  On  this 
subject,  Baird  remarks:  "The  bone  caves  at  Carlisle 
yielded  a  large  number  of  remains  of  beaver,  both 
young  and  old.  There  are  no  satisfactory  points  of 
difference  from  the  existing  species,  although  in  size 
some  of  the  teeth  are  larger  than  any  recent  speci- 
mens I  have  seen,  indicating  a  length  of  quite  six 
inches  for  the  skull.'" 

As  the  European  beaver  bus  its  prototype  in  the 
Trogontlierium,  so  the  Americtn  species  had  its  fore- 
runner in  Cdstoroides,  a  gigantic  fossil  beaver,  surpass- 
ing in  size  all  existing  as  well  as  extinct  rodents. 
But  few  specimens  have  as  yet  been  found.  The  first 
was  described  by  Foster  and  named  Castoroides  Ohio- 
ensis;  and  the  second  by  Hall  and  Wyman.  The  lat- 
ter was  found  in  a  lacustrine  formation  subsequent  to 
the  drift  in  Wayne  County,  New  York.  From  the 
geological  relations  in  which  these  fossil  remains  were 
discovered.  Hall  pronounces  Castoroides  cotempora- 
neous  with  the  mastodon.  The  skull,  measured  from  a 
cast  in  my  collection,  is  ten  inches  and  fifteen  hun- 
dredths in  its  greatest  length,  and  seven  inches  and 
sixty  hundredths  in  its  greatest  width.  He  must 
have  been  five  or  six  times  larger  than  the  beaver  of 
the  present  time.  Baird  observes  that  the  genus  Ccis- 
toroides  is  nearer  to  the  genus  Trogontlierium  than  to 
Castor,  which  is  an  interesting  fact,  showing  that  the 
fossil  genera  are  nearer  to  each  other  than  either  is  to 
the  existing  genua. 

Although  it  thus  appears  that  three  distinct  genera 
of  the  beaver  family — if  Trogontherium  stands  inde- 


^  Explorations  for  a  Railroad  Route,  etc.  to  the  Pacific,  viii.  361. 


Ill 


•iHM4u'.L:WiSM<«ilMMlkiaBiaMti\€.<eA<».M*->.»T-i<^'M.<«'i 


/ 


/ 


/ 


40 


THE   AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


pendent  of  Castor — have  been  ascertained,  and  that 
the  existence  of  its  distinctive  type  extends  backward 
well  toward  the  earhest  epoch  of  mammalian  life 
upon  the  earth,  yet  it  seems  that  the  position  of  this 
family  in  the  animal  kingdom  is  not  as  yet  fully 
determined.  Whether  the  Caatorkl^  are  entitled  to 
the  full  rank  of  an  independent  family,  or  should  be 
attached,  as  a  sub-family,  to  some  other  group,  is  the 
question. 

Brandt,  whose  treatise  upon  the  rodents  is  particu- 
larly elaborate  with  reference  to  the  beaver,  gives 
prominence  to  this  question,  and  also  to  that  of 
the  specific  differences  between  the  European  and 
American  beavers.  He  proposes  to  divide  the  ro- 
dent order  into  four  sub-orders,  and  to  arrange  the 
genera  in  twelve  independent  families.  Under  this 
classification  the  Castoridse  become  an  independent 
family  of  full  rank.  "  The  general  structure,"  he  ob- 
serves, "and  especially  the  character  of  the  skull 
being  more  accurately  considered,  the  order  of  the 
Gnawers  manifests,  as  it  seems  to  me,  four  quite  dis- 
tinct types,  exhibiting  the  equivalent  of  the  sub-orders 
JSciuromorpha,  Myomorpha,  Hystricliomorpha,  and  Lev- 
ymnorplia,  of  each  of  which  respectively  the  common 
genera  Sciurus,  Mus.  Hystrix,  and  Lepvs,  know^n  to 
all,  may  be  declared  the  foundations.  The  four  types 
just  indicated  appear  by  no  means  to  be  constantly 
separated  by  ascertained  differences,  but  they  rather 
offer,  by  means  of  common  marks  and  intermediate 
forms,  a  series  bound  in  unity  with  sufl&cient  con- 
cord."'    The  Castoridse  are  placed  in  the  second  sub- 

*  "  Strnctura  generali  et  prsesertim  cranii  ratione  accnratins  con- 
sideratis  Glirium  Ordo  typos  quatuor  admodum  distinctos,  ut  mihi 


POSITION   IN   ANIMAL   KINGDOM. 


41 


order  {Myomorplia) ,  in  which  it  constitutes  the  second 
family,  and  the  third  in  the  general  series  from  the 
first.  This  arrangement  appears  merely  to  transfer 
without  obviating  the  difficulty,  and  tends  to  compli- 
cate rather  than  simplify  the  question. 

Baird  introduces  into  the  family  Castoridse  the 
genus  Aplodontia,  consisting  of  a  single  species  found 
in  Oregon,  and  confined  to  the  Northwest  Coast.  Tn 
some  features  of  the  teeth  and  skull  it  resembies 
Castor,  and  in  other  particulars  affiliates  equally  well 
with  other  genera  of  rodents.  He  then,  having 
placed  the  Scluridse,  as  other  zoologists  have  done,  in 
the  front  rank  of  the  rodent  order,  attaches  the 
genera  Aplodontia,  Castor^  and  Castoroidea  to  this  group 
as  a  sub-family,  expressing,  however,  a  doubt  as  to  the 
propriety  of  the  arrangement  in  the  following  lan- 
guage :  "  There  has  been  of  late  a  decided  tendency 
to  place  them  near  or  amoiig  the  Scivridse.  In  this 
view  I  am  disposed  to  concur,  although  there  still 
remains  the  question,  whether  the  two  are  not  typical 
of  as  many  different  sub-families,  themselves  forming 
a  family  of  full  rank."* 

Although  unqualified  to  ofier  any  solution  of  this 
problem,  it  appears  to  me  plain  that  the  greater  rela- 

videtar,  subordinam  valorem  exhibentes  manifestat :  Olires,  Sciu- 
romorphos,  Myomorphos,  Hystrichomorphos,  et  Lagomorphos, 
quorum  quidem  singulorum  fundameuta  gencralia  genera  Sciurus, 
Mus.  Eystrix,  et  Lepus  omnibus  nota  declarari  possunt.  Typi 
quatuor  modo  dici  vero  notis  constanter  diversis  minime  disjancti 
apparent,  sed  notarum  commuuium  formarumque  intermediaram 
ope  series  potius  satis  barmonice  in  unitatem  conjunctas  offerant." 
— Mcmoires  de  Academie  Imperiale  des  Sciences  de  St.  Peters- 
bourg.  Sixth  series.  Sciences  Naturelles,  tome  vii.  292. 
'  Explorations  for  a  Railroad  Route,  etc.,  viii.  350. 


i  \ 

1    i 

!        ,; 

t       • 

1  J 

42 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAViSR. 


tive  antiquity  of  the  three  genera  Castor,  CatitoroideSf 
and  Trogontherium,  and  the  unique  and  distinctive 
type  of  animal  life  which  they  represent,  should  de- 
termine the  question  in  favor  of  the  independence  of 
the  Castoridas  as  a  family. 

Another  question  remains,  namely:  whether  the 
American  and  European  beavers  are  the  same  or  dif- 
ferent species.  LinnoBUS,  who  founded  the  genus  Cas- 
tor in  1735,  made  but  one  species — C.  Fiber.  The 
earlier  naturalists,  from  Linnaeud  to  Bufibn  and  Cu- 
vier,  accepted,  without  investigation,  the  specific  iden- 
tity of  the  European  and  American  species. 

According  to  Brandt  (M^moires,  etc.,  44),  Oken  was 
the  first  in  time  (1816)  who  thought  upon  the  question 
of  a  possible*  difference  of  species.  In  1819,  Frederick 
Ciwier  (Hist.  Nat.  des  Mamifers,  No.  16)  gave  a  pretty 
full  description  of  the  external  characteristics  of  a 
Canada  beaver  in  the  Garden  of  Plants,  but  without 
discussing  the  question  of  its  possible  difference  from 
the  European.  Again  in  1825  (lb..  No.  51)  he  de- 
scribed a  beaver  of  the  Rhone,  compared  its  skull 
with  that  of  an  American  beaver,  and  then,  for  the 
first  time,  pointed  out  the  differences  in  its  skull  which 
have  since  been  recognized  as  establishing  distinct- 
ness of  species.  He  also  named  the  American  beaver 
Castor  AmericanuSj  and  the  European  Castor  Gallicus. 
Between  these  two  periods  (1820),  Kuhl  described  a 
Canada  beaver  in  the  British  Museum,  and  named 
it  Castor  Canadensis:  but  his  description  failed  to 
show  any  grounds  of  specific  difference.^ 

* "  Castor  Canadensis."  "  Supra  rufaa,  infra  rufescente  cinereus. 
Extremitatum  pallide  brunescentium  piles  adpressis,  brevibas, 


POSITION   IN   ANIMAL   KINGDOM. 


43 


Owen  (1846),  disregarding  Fr.  Cuvier's  name  of  the 
European  beaver,  calls  him  Ciudnr  Europxus,  in  which 
he  is  followed  by  Brandt  and  other  zoologists.  With 
respect  to  the  American  beaver,  if  specifically  different, 
it  is  doubtful  whether  there  is  such  a  priority  of  scien- 
tific determination  in  favor  of  Kuhl's  name.  Castor 
Canadensis,  as  to  enforce  its  acceptance.  Castor  Amer- 
Icanua,  from  the  great  extent  of  his  habitat,  would  be 
more  appropriate. 

The  question,  however,  of  a  specific  name  for  the 
American  beaver  is  at  least  premature.  It  is  neces- 
sary, first,  to  show  that  they  are  of  different  species, 
which  cannot  as  yet  be  conclusively  asserted.  Brandt, 
who  has  investigated  this  subject  more  elaborately 
than  any  other  zoologist,  came  to  the  same  conclusion 
as  Fr.  Cuvier,  that  they  were  specifically  different. 
Sinct  publication  of  his  memoir  upon  the  Rodents, 
this  conclusion  has  been  very  generally  acquiesced  in 
by  zoologists.  It  appears,  however,  that  his  observa- 
tions and  comparisons  were  limited  to  eight  skulls  of 
the  European,  and  five  of  the  American  beaver.  The 
differences  revealed  by  these  skulls  undoubtedly  justi- 
fied the  inference  of  difference  of  species.  A  com- 
parison of  a  much  larger  number  of  skulls  might 
show,  nevertheless,  that  the  variations  relied  upon 
were  not  constant;  and  such  has  proved  to  be  the 
case.  For  the  purpose  of  testing  ^h*;  constancy  of 
these  assumed  variatic  ns,  I  increased  my  collection  of 


Incidis.  Unguibus  tegalaribas  obtnsis,  corneis  Cauda  applanata, 
piles  ad  basin  squamarum  raris  et  brevibas.  Dentibos  sarrnfis. 
Lougitado  corporis,  22^,  poll,  caudee,  7".  Ejusque  latitudo,  2^ 
poUicam.  Ad  Fretam  Hudson!.  In  Musco  Britanico." — Beitriige 
zur  zoologie  und  Yerleichenden  Anatomise.  Fraukf.,  4,  p.  64. 


II 


44 


THE  AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


/ 


/ 


ii  I 


American  beaver  skulls  to  ninety-eight.  Benide  these, 
seven  American  skulls  and  one  European  were  loaned 
from  the  Smithsonian  ('ollection,  and  two  American 
from  the  New  York  State  Collection,  which  increased 
the  whole  number  of  American  skulls  examined  to 
one  hundred  and  seven.  A  comparison  shows  that 
the  several  variations  be  ween  the  skulls  of  the 
European  and  American  beavers,  claimed  to  exist  by 
Brandt,  are  not  constant;  that  the  supposed  differ- 
ences shade  off  into  each  other  and  disappear,  and 
that  the  tendency  to  diverge,  which  plainly  exists,  is 
no  greater  or  stronger  than  would  be  unavoidably  due 
to  the  long-continued  separation  of  these  stocks,  and 
to  climatic  influences  inseparable  from  their  widely- 
extended  habitat.  If  brought  together,  they  would, 
without  doubt,  produce,  inter  se,  a  fertile  offspring. 
The  anatomical  differences  between  them  are  probably 
less  than  between  individuals  of  the  most  strongly 
contrasted  families  of  mankind.  It  will  not  be  neces- 
sary to  present  the  comparative  measurements  in  this 
connection,  as  they  are  fully  given  in  Appendix  "A," 
to  which  the  reader  is  referred.  The  tendency  to 
variation,  however,  is  sufficiently  marked  to  charac- 
terize the  American  and  European  beavers  as  varie- 
ties of  the  same  species,  which  is  the  most  that  can, 
at  present,  be  claimed.  This  would  fix  the  nomencla- 
ture for  the  first  as  Castor  Fiber,  var.  Americanus, 
and  of  the  second,  as  Castor  Fiber,  var.  Europams. 

The  beaver,  in  the  duration  of  his  distinctive  type, 
is  one  of  the  oldest  of  living  mammals.  He  is  also 
shown  to  have  been  the  cotemporary  of  many  species 
now  extinct.  His  coarse  subsistence,  aquatic  habits, 
rugged  strength,  and  prolific  nature,  eminently  fitted 


POSITION    IN   ANIMAL   KLVGIHIM. 


45 


him  for  a  lonj^  career  of  life  u|)on  the  earth,  traiiH- 
mitted  tlirough  tlie  speeieH.  It  is  not  iiiH)rolnil)le  that 
his  first  api^earance  antedates  tlie  present  confiji,ura- 
tion  of  the  continents.  Of  the  mastodon  hut  one 
species,  I  believe,  has  been  found  in  America,  while 
severol  have  been  discovered  in  Euroixi  and  Asia, 
neither  of  which  is  identical  with  the  American  spe- 
cies. IIow  the  beaver,  adopting  the  conclusion  of  hut 
a  single  species,  propagated  himself  from  one  con- 
tinent to  the  other,  may  be  wholly  unexplainable; 
but  it  does  not  affect  the  question  whether  the  two 
beavers  are  of  the  same,  or  of  different  species.  Of 
all  the  mammals  without  the  Arctic  Circle  in  Europe 
and  America,  with  the  exception  of  man,  the  beavers 
of  the  two  continents  are  probably  the  only  individ- 
uals whose  specific  identity  can  be  established  by 
anatomical  comparisons. 

The  second  chapter  and  Appendix  A,  as  has  else- 
where been  stated,  are  from  the  pen  of  Dr.  W.  W.  Ely, 
whose  able  and  thorough  exposition  of  the  anatomical 
structure  of  the  American  beaver  will  command  the 
attention  of  the  comparative  anatomist,  and  prove  in- 
structive to  the  general  reader.  The  comparison  of 
the  skulls,  referred  to  on  the  preceding  page,  was  made 
by  him. 


•*»!»'.■.  JtWr^-^  . 


CHAPTER  II. 


ANATOMY  OP  tjik    BEAVER. 


/ 


Intrnduclion — DoscripUon — Skoleton — Skull — Toctli  —  Muscles  —  Internal 
OrgHiiii:  Mouth,  Stomuch,  IntcMlinoH,  Ciocutn,  Heart,  Lungs,  Liver, 
Hi)lRun — RcHpiration  of  A<{uatio  Anlmala — Hraiu. 

ArrENiiix  A.  1.  Measurements  of  Skull.  2.  Differences  between  Euro- 
pean ami  American  Beavers  considered.  8.  Castorouni  Organs,  and  Gen- 
erative Organs. 

In  the  study  of  animals  for  the  purpose  of  determ- 
ining their  zoological  relations,  it  has  been  found 
necessary  not  only  to  consider  their  external  charac- 
teristics, but  also  to  investigate  their  internal  struc- 
ture. The  distinction  of  species  is  often  impossible 
without  the  aid  of  anatomical  research.  In  the  case 
of  the  beaver,  the  closely-allied  European  and  Amer- 
ican animals  could  not  be  distinguished  by  anything 
in  their  external  conformation.  Anatomists  resort, 
therefore,  to  a  minute  investigation  of  the  cranial  and 
other  structures  to  discover  essential  points  of  differ- 
ence. 

For  this  reason,  some  account  of  the  anatomy  of 
the  beaver  seems  appropriate  to  the  present  volume, 
which,  although  popular  in  its  character,  is  sufficiently 
comprehensive  in  its  design  to  admit  of  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  scientific  element.  A  somewhat  general 
resum^  of  beaver  anatomy  has  been  attempted  in  order 
to  give  greater  completeness  to  the  work.  It  would 
be  impossible,  in  the  limits  of  a  chapter,  to  give  all 
the  details  belonging  to  this  subject,  which  would  re- 
(46) 


ANATOMY  OP  THE   UKAVKR. 


47 


quirr  a  special  treatise.  Tlie  same  objection  applies 
to  freiiueiit  references  to  comparative  anatomy.  If 
the  scientific  reader  reciuire^J  any  other  ai>()lt>gy  for 
uniissions  in  the  <lescrii)tive  part,  it  must  he  i'outid  in 
the  M Titer's  desire  to  avoid  compihition,  and  to  give 
only  the  results  of  personal  observation.  In  a  few 
points  he  is  at  variance  with  authorities,  but  not 
without  due  consideration. 


DESCRIPTION. 

The  beaver  is  the   largest   indigenous   rodent  in  - 
Europe,  and  the  largest  rodent  now  living  except  the 
capybara  (Hydrocha)ruHCapybara)  of  South  America. 

In  the  following  description  I  shall  refer  to  throe 
adult  animals,  one  maK;  and  two  females,  captured 
near  Lake  Superior,  in  February,  March,  and  Apr'., 
1860.  Two  had  lost  an  arm  each  from  previous  cap- 
ture, the  parts  having  entirely  healed.  The  meas- 
urements here  lad  elsewhere  given,  unless  otherwise 
specified,  are  in  inches  and  hundredths  of  an  inch, 
U.  S.  standard  measure.  Weights  in  avoirdupois 
pounds  and  ounces.  Sign  ior  inches, ";  for  hundredths 
of  an  inch,". 


Hale. 
W't  32  lbs. 

Female. 
W}^  lbs. 

Female. 

36  Iba. 

Length  ft-om  tip  of  nose  to  end  of  tail.. 
"        of  Hoalv  Doriion  of  tail 

II    III 
42-25 

9-75 
14- 
14-50 
20- 
26-50 
25- 

7- 

8-60 

II    III 

42-25 

10- 

13- 

1550 

19- 

24- 

22-50 

6- 

8-75 

II    III 
42- 
10-50 

14-25 
2150 
27-25 
24-50 
8- 
10-50 

Ciroumferenoe  of  head  before  ears 

"            behind  ears 

*•            behind  shoulders 

**            middle  of  abdomen 

•'            before  bins 

•*            root  of  acalv  tail..... 

<•           middle  of  scaly  tail 

^ 


48 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


The  body  of  the  beaver  is  largest  at  its  centre,  and 
(diminishes  in  size  toward  each  extremity.  The  ani- 
mal has*  a  ratlike  appearance  about  the  head  and  nock, 
and  the  snallness  of  the  eyes  and  ears  renders  its -phys- 
iognomy dull  and  uninteresting.  The  body  is  covered 
with  reddish-brown  hair  of  two  kinds:  the  longer  coarse 
hairs  are  about  2"  in  length  and  -h"  in  diameter,  and 
the  shorter,  which  are  of  a  lighter  color,  and  partly 
concealed  by  the  former,  are  about  1"  long,  and  tVstt' 
in  diameter.  Both  kinds  present  an  imbricate  epi- 
dermoid structure.  The  beaver  has  the  peculiar 
odor  of  the  castcreum,  to  be  hereafter  described.  Its 
head  is  rounded,  flattened  above,  and  the  muzzle  is 
somewhat  prominent.  The  upper  lip  is  emarginate 
to  the  edge  of  the  incisor  gum,  where  it  closely  ad- 
heres. The  lower  lip  is  loose  and  pendant,  so  that 
the  incisor  teeth  are  prominent  features.  Both  lips 
are  somewhat  drawn  in  behind  the  incisors,  and  are 
slightly  hairy  within.  From  the  angle  of  the  mouth 
a  thin  line  of  hairs  extends  backward  one-fourth  of 
an  inch  to  a  quadrangular  patch  of  thickly  set  hairs 
on  the  inside  of  the  cheek,  80'"  in  length  and  32'"  in 
breadth.  From  the  emarginate  upper  lip  (in  one 
beaver)  the  hair  extends  66"'  to  the  naked  muffle, 
which  is  90'"  long  and  22'"  broad,  covered  with  rough 
black  epidermis.  In  two  beavers  the  naked  portion 
of  the  muffie  includes  the  nostrils,  and  extends  in  a 
narrow  line  to  the  edge  of  the  lip.  The  nostrils  are 
lateral,  hairy,  round  when  expanded,  and  assume  a 
sub-triangular  or  crescentic  form,  the  convexity  being 
in  front.  Width  between  nostrils  in  one,  75'",  in  an- 
other, 66'";  diameter  of  nostrils,  20'".  There  are  five 
rows  of  bristles,  the  upper  row  having  but  few  hairs. 


ANATOMY  OF  THE  BEAVER. 


49 


The  eyes  nre  small,  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  are 
midway  between  the  nostrils  and  the  ears;  diameter 
of  iriss,  8'";  length  of  closed  eyelid,  50'".  A  few  bris- 
tles over  the  eyes.  The  ears  are  short,  very  hairy  on 
both  sides,  rounded  and  obtusely  pointed.  The  pos- 
terior extremity  of  the  beaver  presents  a  singular 
formation.  The  body  diminishes  in  size  gradually 
from  the  hips,  and  terminates  iu  a  flat  scaly  tail, 
which,  measured  from  the  sacrum,  is  about  18"  in 
length;  the  first  8"  being  covered  with  hair  like  the 
rest  of  the  body.  The  scaly  portion  commences  ab- 
ruptly with  a  width  of  about  four  inches,  an^  termin- 
ates with  a  rounded  extremity.  The  scaly  portion 
(Plate  II )  is  slightly  convex  above  and  below,  thin  at 
the  margin,  and  is  covered  with  a  black,  tough,  scaly 
epidermis.  The  scales  are  somewhat  irregular  in  form 
and  size,  the  most  usual  form  being  sub-hexagonal, 
about  32'"  in  length,  and  12'"  in  width.  They  are 
arranged  transversely  in  respect  to  length,  in  the  so- 
called  quincunx  form,  and  they  diminish  in  size  to- 
ward the  end  of  the  tail ;  across  the  middle  of  the  tail 
their  number  is  19  or  20  above,  and  20  or  21  on  the 
under  surface.  A  few  short,  broken  hairs  pass  out 
between  the  scales. 

It  may  be  observed  here  that  although  this  struc- 
ture is  usually  described  as  scaly,  it  is  so  only  in  ap- 
pearance. M.  Sarrasin'  describes  the  "scales"  as  "cou- 
chees  les  unes  sur  les  autres,  jointes  ensemble  par 
une  pellicule  fort  delicate,  enchas8«^s  dan.ila  peau  dont 

'  Hlstoire  de  I'Academie  Royale  des  Sciences.  Anuee  1704. 
Paris,  1745.  Lettre  de  M.  Sarrasin,  mcdecia  du  Roy  en  Canada, 
toacbant  I'Anatomie  da  Castor,  p.  61. 

4 


i 


50 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


elles  se  separent  ais^inent  apr^s  la  mort  de  I'animal." 
Thin  longitudinal  and  transverse  sections  exhibit  the 
true  character  of  this  structure.  The  tail  is  com- 
posed largely  of  a  dense  fatty  tissue;  upon  this  lies 
the  derm  or  skin,  07'"  in  thickness,  its  outer  sur- 
face being  serrated,  with  the  points  of  the  serratures 
toward  the  end  of  the  tail.  Over  the  serratures  is  ex- 
tended the  tough  horny  epiderm,  bV  tO  vo"  in  thick- 
ness, which  is  inflected  under  the  serratures,  so  as  to 
present  the  imbricate  appearance.  Thn  longitudinal 
divisions  are  merely  dips  or  depressions,  not  imbricate. 

Fio.  1. 


Longitudinal  section  of  scaly  tail,  twice  the  natur.l  size. 

'  The  beaver,  being  an  aquatic  as  well  as  a  land  ani- 
mal, presents  two  types  of  structure.  The  arms  and 
'i'liids  are  small,  are  adapted  ^o  burrowing,  and,  being 
capable  of  partial  supination,  the  hands  may  be  used 
for  holding  substances  between  them.  The  hind  ex- 
tremities are  strongly  developed^  and  are  constructed 
after  the  aquatic  type.  The  feet  have  been  compared 
to  those  of  the  turtle.  Each  extremity  has  five  digits. 
The  back  of  the  hand  is  thickly  covered  with  short 
hairs;  the  palm  is  naked,  with  a  tough  black  epi- 
dermis, and  two  tubercles,  one  opposite  the  fifth  fin- 
ger, the  other  under  the  metacarpals  of  the  second, 
third,  and  fourth.  The  fingers  are  furnished  with 
long  claws,  of  which  that  of  the  third  finger  is  the 
longest,  02'"  long,  and  20'"  broad.  The  first  finger 
(thumb)  is  shorter  than  its  claw.     Next  in  length  is 


t-' 


to 


s 


I 


ANATOMY   OF   THE   BEAVER. 


61 


Fig.  2. 


Inside  view  of  double 
claws. 


the  fourth ;  then  the  second  and  the  fifth.  Between 
the  third  and  fourth  fingers  is  a  rudimentary  web,  ex- 
tending to  the  second  phalanx,  measuring  on  its  edge 
60'".  The  foot  is  6  Mo  7"  long.  The  upper  surface  is 
covered  with  short  silky  hairs.  Below  it  is  naked.  At 
the  base  of  the  first  toe  is  a  tubercle.  Tlie  third  toe  is 
the  longest;  then  in  order  of  length  the  fourth,  second, 
fifth,  and  first.  The  claws  are  larger  than  those  of 
the  hand,  the  third  claw  measuring  from  87'"  to  1"  10'" 
in  length,  and  34'"  to  38'"  in  width. 
There  is  an  extra  flattened  claw  lying 
under  the  regular  claw  of  the  second 
toe  (Fig.  2) .  All  the  toes  are  connect- 
ed, to  their  extremities,  by  a  firm  naked 
web  or  membrane,  measuring  on  its 
margin,  when  the  toes  are  spread,  7i 
to  8i  inches.  The  beaver  has  four  nipples,  two  be- 
tween the  shoulders,  3"  apart,  and  two,  3"  farther 
back,  4"  apart. 

OSTEOLOGY. 

The  skeleton  of  the  beaver,  of  which  a  representa- 
tion is  given  PI.  III.,  affords  273  bones,  including  the 
aural  ossicles  and  excluding  the  sesamoid  bones.  Of 
these  there  are  38  of  the  head,  20  teeth,  and  215 
bones  of  the  trunk,  tail,  and  extremities.  The  beaver 
has  55  vertebrse,  viz.,  cervical,  7;  dorsal,  14;  lumbar, 
5;  sacral,  confluent,  4  ;  and  caudal,  25. 

The  first  and  second  cervical  vertebras  are  strong, 
the  second  and  third  are  the  smallest.  Six  have  for- 
amina for  the  vertebral  artery.  The  head  of  the  first 
rib  is  articulated  between  the  bodies  of  the  seventh 
cervical  and  the  first  dorsal.     The  last  four  lumbar 


','  I 


HI 


n 


^9 


THE   AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


vertebras  have  large  transverse  processes.  The  sa- 
crum is  straight,  the  first  bone  being  somewhat  prom- 
inent anteriorly.  The  caudal  vertebrae  gradually 
diminish  in  size  and  lose  their  vertebral  characters. 
In  the  sixth,  the  posterior  lateral  articulating  oarfaces 
disappear,  and  the  spinal  canal  in  the  tenth  becomes 
a  mere  groove.  The  spinous  processes  also  disappear 
in  the  eighth  or  ninth.  The  transverse  processes  are 
long,  broad,  and  toward  the  end  of  the  tail  are  bifid 
or  double.  The  lateral  foramina,  which  begin  in  the 
sacrum  at  the  posterior  edge  of  the  transverse  pro- 
cesses, continue  to  the  sixth  caudal. 

Tlie  ribs  are  slender,  rounded,  in  14  pairs.  Seven 
are  articulated  by  cartilage  with  the  sternum.  The 
cartilages  of  the  8th  and  9th  are  connected  with  the 
costal  cartilages.  The  remaining  ribs  are  tipped  with 
free  cartilage. 

The  sternum  is  composed  of  five  narrow  slender 
bones;  the  first  and  fourth  are  the  broadest.  Theensi- 
form  cartilage  expands  into  a  broad  flat  disk.  Length 
of  sternum  and  ensiform  cartilage,  G".  The  clavicles 
are  strong,  2"  IC"  in  length.  The  scapula  is  3"  25'" 
long,  and  1"  50'"  broad.  Its  spine  is  prominent,  and 
the  acromion  is  1"  18'"  in  length. 

The  humerus  is  3"  long;  its  body  is  triangular  and 
compressed;  the  tubercle  at  the  head  is  large;  about 
the  middle  of  the  bone  anteriorly  is  a  large  tubercle 
for  the  insertion  of  the  deltoid  muscle;  the  lower  end 
is  broad,  thin,  not  perforated;  the  external  condyle 
spreads  out  to  a  thin  convex  edge  which  passes  up 
the  middle  of  the  posterior  surface  of  the  bone. 

The  radius  is  slender,  and  lies  close  to  the  ulna  in 
its  whole  length.    The  olecranon  is  94"'  long,  and  the 


1 


3 

m 


i 

1 

k: 

I              5 

I        ! 

ANATOMY   OF   THE    BEAVER. 


53 


entire  ulna  4"  37'".  The  hands  are  small  compared 
with  the  feut.  In  the  upper  carpal  row  there  are 
two  bones  instead  of  the  usual  number  of  four.  lu 
the  second  row  a  crescentic  bone  connects  the  thumb 
with  the  lateral  part  of  the  head  of  the  adjoining 
(first)  metacarpal.  On  the  head  of  this  metacarpal 
are  two  smaller  bones  (trapezoids)  overlying  each 
other,  and  articulating  with  the  scaphoid  of  the  first 
row.  On  the  third  metacarpal  is  a  wedge-shaped 
bone  with  the  apex  toward  the  scaphoid.  Next  in 
the  row  is  a  large  bone  (os  magnum)  receiving  the 
heads  of  the  4th  and  5th  metacarpals.  The  next 
bone,  occupying  the  position  of  the  unciform,  is  large, 
and  is  attached  to  the  ulnar  bone  of  the  first  row, 
and  supports  the  annular  ligament.  A  third  plate 
bone,  connected  by  ligament  with  the  scaphoid,  lies 
over  the  root  of  the  thumb  and  forms  the  other  at- 
tachment of  the  annular  ligament.  The  phalanges 
are  normal,  the  thumb  being  very  small. 

The  pelvis  is  long;  the  lateral  bones  being  6"  50" 
in  length,  and  the  ilia  having  but  rudimentary  alee. 
The  ischium  and  pubis  are  thin,  and  their  expansion 
is  effected  by  the  large  thyroid  foramen,  2"  long  and 
1"  broad,  which  is  destitute  of  ligament.  Between 
the  ischial  tuberosities  it  is  3";  the  transverse  diameter 
of  the  pelvis  is  2".  The  greatest  depth  of  the  acetab- 
ulum is  superiorly  and  anteriorly  in  the  line  of  the 
ilium.  There  is  the  usual  pit  for  the  round  ligament 
which  is  well  developed  and  strong,  although  H. 
Wagner  affirms  that  it  does  not  exist  in  the  mamma- 
lia, except  in  man'  (i.  p.  15). 

'  Elements  of  the   Comparative  Anatomy  of  the  Vertebrate 
Animals.  By  Rudolph  Wagner.  Transl.     New  York,  lc45. 


54  THE    AMERICAX    BEAVER. 

Tlie  femur  i.s  broad  and  vtry  strong,  4"  ICT  in 
lenirtli.  Be;?ides  the  two  trochanters,  there  is  a  prom- 
inent  proce>!s  on  tlie  outer  margin,  below  the  middle 
of  tlie  bone,  from  which  a  sharp  edjo  extends  above 
and  Ijelow;  a  deep  pit  exists  on  the  under  side  of  the 
great  trochanter. 

The  tibia  is  0"  2-3'"  long,  triangular  above.  Its  body 
is  excavated  on  each  side  of  the  posterior  angle :  be- 
low it  is  rounded,  with  but  sn.all  development  of  the 
malleolar  process. 

The  i^bu'a  forms  a  strong  outer  malleolar  process 
in  close  apposition  to  the  astragalus.  It  is  attached 
for  1"  2-3"  to  the  lower  end  of  ihe  tibia,  and  after  the 
epiphyses  become  consolidated  the  union  is  by  anchy- 
losis. The  upper  n\d  of  the  fibula  lies  behind  the 
tibia,  and  has  a  hauiular  process  pointing  outwardly 
and  downward,  which  gives  attachment  to  a  strong 
ligament  that  extends  from  the  lower  part  of  the  lx)ne 
and  passes  from  the  process  in  c^uestion  to  the  femur, 
forming  an  outer  lateral  ligament  to  the  knee-joint. 

Tiie  patella  is  subtriangular  in  form  with  the  base 
above. 

The  plane  of  the  foot  is  oblique  with  respect  to  the 
leg,  requiring  the  feet  to  approximate  to  rest  on  a 
level  surface.  The  tarsal  bones  are  8  in  number. 
The  astragalus  requires  no  particular  description. 
The  calcaneura  is  fattened  obliquely  on  its  upper  and 
under  surfaces,  and  projects  backward  84'"  't  articu- 
lates with  the  astragalus  and  the  cuboid.  The  sca- 
phoid has  a  neck  and  a  rounded  head  which  is  seen 
in  the  bottom  of  the  fout.  A  nameless  bone,  subcon- 
ical  in  shape,  which  is  projjerly  an  appendage  to  the 
scaphoid,  articul  ites  with  the  astragalus  on  tae  inside 


9W. 


-i 


L.'i 


2E 


ANATOMY   OF   THE    BEAVER. 


00 


of  the  foot  and  receives  the  apex  of  the  first  cunei- 
form, which  is  flattened  and  notched  at  the  distal  end 
to  receive  the  phahmjieal  biMie  of  the  first  toe. 

A  small  cuneiform  is  articulated  with  the  2d  meta- 
tarsal, and  a  large  one  with  the  3d  metatai-sal.  receiv- 
ing also  the  head  of  the  4th  metatarsal,  which  is  the 
largest  of  its  class.  A  jwrtion  of  this  4th  metatarsal 
is  articulated  with  the  cuboid.  The  -Jth  metatarsal  is 
joined  to  the  side  of  the  4th,  and  has  no  connei'tion 
with  the  tarsus.  On  the  tarsal  end  <  i  the  first  toe  a 
movable  fiat  bone  is  placed,  answerihg  by  its  connec- 
tion with  muscles,  the  purposes  of  a  patella. 

The  peculiarities  of  the  tarsal  articulation  are:  the 
supplementary  scaphoid  bone,  the  form  and  position 
of  the  1st  cuneiform  and  the  connections  of  the  4th 
and  oth  metatarsals. 

The  sesauioid  bones  are  found  as  usual.  The  pha- 
langes present  nothing  remarkable.  The  terminal 
ones,  to  which  the  claws  are  attached,  are  furnished 
With  a  bony  process  to  suppoit  the  claw.  The  first 
tc«  is  smallest  and  shortest,  then  the  oth  and  the  2d: 
the  3d  and  4th  are  about  equal  in  length.  The  claws 
of  the  1st  and  2d  are  placed  obliquely,  being  turned 
inward,  so  that  their  points  are  not  worn;  the  others 
become  blunt  and  rounded  at  their  extremities.  The 
second  toe  has  an  extra  claw  growinsr  from  the  skin 
and  partly  covered  by  the  regular  claw ;  it  is  flattened 
laterally  and  has  a  sharp  edge  above  and  a  point. 

The  claws  of  the  fingers  are  about  as  long  as  those 
of  the  toes,  but  are  much  narrower  and  more  pointed. 
The  l::>t  finger  h  shorter  than  the  5th;  then  the  2d, 
the  4th,  and  the  3d. 

The  hyoid  bone  forms  a  semicircle  and  has  an  an- 
terior projection. 


50 


THE  AMERICAN  BEAVEK. 


THE  SKULL. 


The  skull  of  the  boavcr  exceeds  that  of  other  ro- 
dents in  solidity  and  strength.  It  is  much  elongated, 
its  length  being  more  than  twice  and  a  half  its  height. 
Its  upper  line  is  nearly  plane;  a  parallel  line  below 
touches  the  condyle,  the  ])alatal  bone,  and  the  point  of 
the  incisive  septum.  The  principal  surface  of  the 
occipital  bone  is  vertical  to  this  line.  The  molars 
occupy  the  middle  of  the  skull,  being  separated  by  an 
arched  space  from  the  incisors.  Viewed  from  above, 
the  skull  presents  (piito  a  different  outline,  the  width 
being  about  two-fifths  of  the  length.  These  propor- 
tions are  shown  in  the  lateral  and  the  top  views  of  the 
skull  (Plate  IV.). 

The  nasal  bones  occupy  one-third  of  the  length  of 
the  skull;  are  broadest  anteriorly,  and  at  their  junc- 
tion in  front  form  an  obtuse  point.  Their  outer 
margin  is  a  convex  curve,  where  they  are  joined  to 
the  intermaxillaries.  Their  posterior  extremities  and 
those  of  the  intermaxillaries  join  the  frontal  on  a  line 
with  the  anterior  orbital  tubercles  of  that  bone.  The 
intermaxillaries  are  very  strong.  A  nearly  vertical 
suture  connects  them  with  the  superior  maxillary;  a 
little  more  than  half  of  the  sheath  of  the  incisors  is 
formed  by  them.  The  lateral  and  louder  part  of  the 
nasal  opening  in  front,  which  has  the  form  of  the 


'  References  to  figures  of  the  skull.  Plates  IV.  and  V.: 
1.  Nasal  bone.  6.  Occipital.  11.  Lachrymal. 


2.  Intermaxillary. 

3.  Frontal. 

4.  Parietal. 

5.  Interparieta'. 


7.  'lemporal. 

8.  Malar. 

9.  'i'yuipanic. 

10.  cfuperior  maxillary. 


12.  Palatal. 

13.  Pre  c>phenoid. 

14.  Post-sphenoid. 

15.  Ethmoid. 


Plate  IV 


LATERAL  VIEW  Oi"  SKULL     Na^.size 


•>; 


1  OP  VllVV.  of  3KULL   rs  nat  s.ze. 


r 


ANATOMY   OF   THK   HKAVKR. 


57 


letter  V,  i«   formed   by  tliem.     The  frontal  hone  \s 
flattened  above.     The  two  honen  nro  early   united, 
and  in  the  adult  present  only  the  trace  of  a  suture. 
The  frontal  i.s  broadest  anteriorly,  spreading  out  to 
form  the  anterior  orbital  i)roces8es.     From  a  rounded 
margin   the  orl)ital  plate  descends  nearly  vertically 
into  the  socket.     This  margin  is  a  little  prominent 
posteriorly,  forming   a  smaller   process.     From   this 
point    the    bone   is   wedge-lbrm,   passing    backward 
between    the   parietals.     In    the   orbital  cavity  the 
frontal  joins  the  lachrymal,  the  superior  maxillary 
and  the  ala  of  the  pre-sphenoid.     The  lachrymal  is 
triangular  above,  wedged  in  between  the  frontal  and 
malar;  it  forms  part  of  the  inner  anterior  portion  of 
the  orbit.     The  parietal  bones  are  about  half  the 
length  of  the  skull.     They  are  united  in  their  middle 
third  by  suture,  being  separated  anteriorly  by  the 
frontal  bone,  and  behind  by  the  interparietal;  they 
extend  back  to  the  occipital  and  join  the  temporals 
by  a  longitudinal  suture.     Their  anterior  margin  in 
the  temporal  fossoo  is  inflected,  roughened,  forming  a 
crest  which  extends  on  the  temporal  to  the  zygomatic 
process;  in  uie  fossa3  they  join  the  ala)  of  both  sphe- 
noids; posteriorly  and  laterally  their  pointed  extremi- 
ties extend  a  short  distance  behind  the  temporals. 
The  interparietal  bone  is  triangular,  but  very  variable 
in  its  form  in  different  skulls.    In  young  subjects  it  is 
in  two  portions,  divided  by  the  sagittal  suture;  in  old 
skulls  the  place  of  the  suture  is  occupied  by  a  sharp 
crest.    The  base  ol  this  bone  joins  the  occipital.    The 
temporal  bones  are  lateral.     The  zygomatic  process 
extends  downward  and  outward,  in  a  flattened  form, 
to  constitute  the  roof  of  the  glenoid  cavity;  then 


58 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


curves  forward  to  unite  with  the  malar — posteriorly  a 
hooked  process  of  the  temporal  winds  around  the 
back  part  of  the  auditory  tube  to  the  base  of  the  mas- 
toid process.  Anteriorly  and  inferiorly  it  joins  the 
ala  of  the  post-sphenoid,  and  posteriorly  it  embraces 
the  tympanic  bone;  the  sutures  of  this  bone  are  squa- 
mous. The  glenoid  cavity  is  a  flattened  groove  of 
greater  width  than  length,  its  outer  margin  formed 
by  the  abrupt  termination  of  the  malar,  the  inner 
boundary  being  the  vertical  portion  of  the  temporal; 
the  lower  jaw  moves  freely,  in  a  longitudinal  direc- 
tion, back  inio  the  space  between  the  glenoid  groove 
and  the  auditory  tube. 

The  vertical  portion  of  the  occipital  bone  is  much 
roughened  for  muscular  attachment.  Its  upper  mar- 
gin is  a  sharp  ridge,  in  front  of  which  is  the  trans- 
verse suture.  In  young  subjects  the  ridge  is  wanting. 
The  occipital  foramen  is  subtriangular  or  rounded — 
broader  than  its  height.  The  condyles  look  down- 
ward, outward,  and  backward.  The  basilar  portion 
lies  between  the  tympanic  bones,  and  is  united  in  front 
by  ligament  to  the  post-sphenoid.  An  oblong,  deep 
cavity  in  the  basilar  portion  renders  this  bone  very 
thin.  The  mastoid  processes  of  the  occipital  are 
lateral  to  the  condyles.  In  young  subjects  the  bone 
consists  of  four  portions,  viz.:  the  upper  squamous 
portion,  the  basilar  portion,  and  the  two  lateral  or 
condyloid  portions. 

The  tympanic  bone  is  very  irregular  in  shape.  It 
forms  a  small  part  of  the  vertical  extremity  of  the 
skull,  and  its  mastoid  process  joins  that  of  the  occipi- 
tal. The  bulla  is  thick  and  prominent.  From  the 
posterior  part  of  the  auditory  tube,  a  sharp  prominent 


piiiif  ni">_;|  ^.if  ■  ;wy» 


ANATOMY   OF   THE   BEAVER. 


59 


crest  extends  downward  to  the  bottom  of  the  bulla — 
a  long,  rough  process  at  the  base  connects  it  with  the 
basilar  process  and  the  post-sphenoid — it  is  separated 
from  the  ala  of  the  sphenoid  by  a  large  fissure — the 
foramen  lacenum  basis  cranii.  The  auditory  canal  is 
prominent,  extending  upward,  outward,  and  forward. 
The  styloid  bone  lies  in  a  groove  of  the  bulla,  at- 
tached by  a  ligament.  The  foramen  for  the  Eustachian 
tube  is  a  little  above  the  junction  of  the  long  process 
of  the  sphenoid  with  this  bone.  The  petrous  portion 
has  an  uneven  surface  within.  Above  the  internal 
auditory  foramen  is  a  pit  which  receives  a  process  of 
the  cerebellum,  in  the  margin  of  which  is  a  semicir- 
cular canal.  The  malar  bones  are  long  inferiorly. 
The  ascending  portion  in  front  is  firmly  united  with 
the  transverse  plate  of  the  superior  maxillary,  the 
edge  of  which  is  seen  in  front  of  the  malar.  Above, 
the  malar  forms  the  ou<ter  third  of  the  orbit — forming 
a  process  from  which  a  ligament  extends  to  the  frontal 
to  complete  the  orbital  opening,  separating  the  orbit 
from  the  temporal  fossa — this  large  fossa  is  bounded 
laterally  and  posteriorly  by  the  malar,  temporal,  and 
parietal  bones. 

The  superior  maxillary  bone  extends  from  the  pos- 
terior line  of  the  molars  to  the  interparietal,  and  forms 
about  half  the  arch  between  the  incisors  and  the 
molars — and  less  than  half  the  sheath  of  the  incisors. 
The  transverse  malar  plate  commences  at  the  back 
part  of  the  first  molar,  extends  outwardly  to  the  an- 
terior inferior  angle  of  the  malar,  forming,  as  seen 
from  in  front,  a  broad  arch.  In  front  of  the  first 
molar,  a  ridge  commences,  becoming  more  prominent, 
and  passing  upward,  parallel  with  the  malar  plate, 


60 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


crosses  the  suture,  and  is  lost  in  the  intermaxillary. 
The  ante-orbital  foramen  is  concealed  from  lateral 
view  by  the  most  prominent  part  of  this  ridge.  The 
s.  maxillary  forms  part  of  the  orbit  anteriorly.  The 
alveolar  part  of  this  bone  is  more  prominent  on  the 
outer  surface — posteriorly  it  is  supported  by  the 
pterygoid  bone,  and  the  triangular  palatal  bone  enters 
as  a  wedge  from  behind  as  far  as  between  the  second 
and  third  molars.  The  outer  alveolar  surfiice  has  a 
sharp  slope  toward  the  middle  portion  of  the  skull, 
where  it  joins  the  perforated  body  of  the  pre-sphenoid. 
In  young  subjects,  before  dentition  is  complete,  the 
upper  alveolar  part  is  bulbous  and  prominent  In  the 
orbit  the  maxillary  touches  the  frontal.  The  palatal 
bone  is  somewhat  cribriform — a  ridge,  commencing 
with  a  point  of  bone,  extends  from  its  base,  and  is 
continued  along  the  maxillary,  forming  the  posterior 
half  of  the  septum  of  the  incisive  foramina.  Tli<.  pos- 
terior naris  is  nearly  circular — the  ascending  portion 
of  the  palatal  supports  above  the  two  sphenoid  bodies. 

The  sphenoid  bones  are  distinct,  and  about  equal 
in  length.  The  outer  pterygoid  process  is  short, 
strong,  and  divergent — the  inner  is  long,  and  curves 
backward  so  as  to  touch  a  process  of  the  tympanic 
bone,  forming  thus  an  oval  lateral  opening.  Where 
the  sphenoidal  bodies  join,  by  their  side,  is  the  large 
sphenoidal  fissure,  corresponding  to  the  oval  and 
round  foramina — the  small  optic  foramen  is  seen  by 
the  side  of  the  pre-sphenoid. 

Brandt*  describes  but  one  sphenoidal  wing  in  the 

^  Momoires  de  I'Acadetnie  Imporialo  des  Sciences  de  Saint 
Petei'sbourg.  Sciences  Xaturelles,  tome  vii.,  1855.  Beitriige 
zur  naliern  kentniss  der  gattung  Castor,  etc.     J.  F.  Brandt. 


(V 

■  ft 


(i 

V 


tl 


. 


Plate  V 


/?jj:v.iii  ^;r.^ 


INTERIOR  VIEW  OF  SKULL    Nat  size 


./■•YtH'.?  /;;    fi'  M\  '^'V- 


J 


/'.''.:v,v.'.i/.. /o"  r;;./';f' 


LOWER  JAW    Nat  size 


ANATOMY   OF   THE    BEAVER. 


61 


temporal  fossa.  Although  the  sutures  of  the  beaver's 
skull  become  consolidated  early,  and  are  sometimes 
made  out  with  difficulty,  the  two  sphenoidal  wings 
can  be  traced  in  many  skulls.  In  a  young  skull, 
after  the  temporal  and  parietal  are  removed,  the 
broad  squamous  suture  which  connects  the  two  wings 
can  be  opened.  Cuvier  says:  "Le  sphenoide  pos- 
terieur  touche  un  peu  dans  le  tenipe  au  frontal"^  T. 
R.  Jones,  art.  Rodentia  in  Cyc.  of  Anat.  and  Phys,,^ 
adopts  Cuvier's  description  of  the  sphenoids.  In 
forming  the  suture,  the  wing  of  tli'^  post-sphenoid  is 
anterior,  but  the  other  wing  rises  higher  to  join  the 
frontal — the  suture  of  the  frontal  passes  back  some 
distance  under  the  parietal,  but  not  far  enough  to 
touch  the  posterior  wing,  although  they  are  closely 
approximated.  In  this  instance,  then,  the  statement 
of  Cuvier  is  not  confirmed. 

The  ethmoid  bone  has  a  cribriform  body  in  the  an- 
terior part  of  the  cavity  that  lodges  the  olfactory  lobe. 
It  has  also  a  vertical  plate  and  three  sets  of  cells  on 
each  side,  of  which  a  representation  is  given  (Plate  V.); 
the  vertical  plate  has  been  removed  to  shov/  the  cells 
entire.  A  turbinated  bone  in  each  nostril  is  attached 
by  its  base  to  the  sheath  of  the  incisor.  It  is  formed 
of  six  or  seven  thin  lamina  of  bone  proceeding  from 
its  base  and  dichotomously  subdividing  and  convolu- 
ting.  This  bone  has  been  removed  in  Plate  V.  to  show 
the  sheath  of  the  incisor.  The  vomer  is  represented 
in  the  same  figure  by  the  lower  dotted  lines.     There 

^  Le9ons  d'Aiiatomie  Comparee  de  Georges  Cuvier,  etc.  Seconde 
edition.   Paris,  1835  to  1846. 

^  The  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Pliysiology,  by  R.  B.Todd. 
London. 


^1 


\   ) 


*'Vi    -■ 


>■,.«■   , 


62 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


is  also  attached  to  the  under  surface  of  each  nasal  a 
long  curved  bone  overlapping  the  turbinate,  and  serv- 
ing to  retain  it  in  its  position. 

In  addition  to  the  ridges  or  crests  which  have  been 
described,  there  are  the  parietal  crests;  these  start 
from  tlie  interparietal  crest,  and,  diverging,  terminate 
at  the  junction  of  the  temporals  and  frontal.  Their 
usual  form  is  represented  in  the  top  view  of  the  skull, 
but  it  is  sul^ject  to  much  variation.  There  is  a  straight 
glenoid  crest  at  the  junction  of  the  temporal  and 
sphenoid.  The  top  of  the  hook  process  of  the  jugular 
bone  forms  a  crest  continuous  with  the  sharp  upper 
edge  of  the  malar.  Delicate  ridges  extend  from  the 
outer  margins  of  the  incisive  foramina  to  the  front 
edge  of  the  alveolar  processes,  and  from  the  temporal 
jugular  process  a  crest  extends  backward  toward  the 
posterior  point  of  the  parietal. 

The  incisive  foramina  are  in  the  intermaxillaries 
midway  between  the  incisors  and  the  molars.  The 
spheno-palatine  foramen^  \v.  just  behind  the  orbital 
opening  of  the  ante-orbital  foramen,  and  opens  into 
the  nostril  at  the  junction  of  the  ethmoid  and  the 
s.  maxillary.  The  small  optic  foramen  is  in  the  ala 
of  tlie  pre-sphenoid  above  the  transverse  opening  in 
the  body  of  the  bone.  The  pt'^rygo-palatine'  is  lower 
than  the  optic,  and  opens  in  the  anterior  part  of  the 
palatal  bone.  The  external  pterygoid  plate  is  pierced 
with  a  large  foramen  which  communicates  with  the 
sphenoidal  fis.iure  by  what  Cuvier  calls  the  Vidian 
canal.     The  condyloid  foramina  are  in  front  of  the 


^  These  foramina  are  named  from  analogy,  the  first  Is  entirely 
in  the  maxillarv,  and  the  second  in  the  maxillarj  and  the  palatal. 


ANATOMY   OF   THE    BEAVER. 


63 


condyles  opposite  their  middle.  The  lateral  foramina 
in  the  vertical  portion  of  the  occipital  are  closed  in 
the  recent  i  ubject  by  membrant,. 

Wormian  bones  are  occasionally  but  not  commonly 
found  in  the  sutures.  Sometimes  a  rounded  mas^s  of 
bone  is  imbedded  in  the  larger  mastoid  process.' 

The  lo\\'er  jaw  is  very  massive  (Plate  V.).  Tlie  two 
parts  are  joined  in  front  by  a  long  and  broad  sym- 
physis,' forming  below  a  pointed  process.  Its  poste- 
rior angle  is  flattened  into  a  broad  process,  hollowed 
within  and  tipped  with  a  broad  long  crest — this  part 
extends  farther  back  than  the  condyle — at  the  root 
of  the  'condyle  on  the  outer  side  is  a  depression; 
above  this  the  coronoid  process  arises  and  is  pointed 
backward.  The  anterior  line  of  the  process  passes 
downward  and  forward,  the  crest  ter  alnating  at  the 
extremity  of  the  root  of  the  first  mclar.  The  con- 
dyle is  quadrangular,  rounded,  and  is  nearer  the  coro- 
noid process  than  the  posterior  crest.  The  foramina 
for  the  nutrient  vessels,  etc.  is  behind  the  molars  and 
higher  than  their  crown  surfaces;  the  mental  foramen 
is  below  the  anterior  face  of  the  first  molar. 

THE   TEETH. 

The  character  of  the  Rodentia  as  a  natural  order 
is  made  to  depend  upon  a  peculiar  kind  of  cutting  or 
incisive  teeth,  which  are  separated  from  the  grinding 
or  molar  teeth  by  an  empty  space,  the  canine  teeth 
being  wanting.  The  teeth  of  animals  bear  a  defin- 
ite relation  to  their  mode  of  subsi«tence,  and  from 

*  For  measurements  of  the  skull,  and  diflferences  in  the  European 
and  the  American  beaver,  see  appendix  A. 


I 


04 


THE   AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


their  correspondence  with  other  structures  of  the 
body,  the  comparative  anatomist  is  able  to  determine, 
by  an  ins[)C'L!tion  of  these  organs  alone,  the  kind  of 
animal  to  which  they  belong.  The  rodents  gener- 
ally derive  their  food  from  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

Before  describing  the  te^th  of  the  beaver,  we  may 
premise  for  the  ge.  ;ral  •      3e)  a  few  ficts  in  "elation 
to  the  dentia  organ.      MiOf  malian  teeth  are  composed 
of  substances  esSviitiiiily  i'L,^embling  bone,  of  which 
three  kinds  are  usually  pre^     c    viz.:  the   external 
hard  covering  or  enamel;  dentine,  which  forms  the 
body  of  the  tooth ;  and  cementum,  or  crusta  petrosa, 
which  is  deposited  on  the  surface,  and  usually  on  the 
dentine  of  the  root.     The  divisions  of  a  tooth  are  the 
crown,  or  portion  above  the  gum;  the  root,  or  part 
inclosed  in  the  socket;    and  the  neck,  or  point   of 
junction  between  the  crown  and  the  root.     There  are 
three  kinds  of  teeth:  the  front,  or  incisive;  the  back, 
or  molar;  and  the  canine,  or  intermediate  teeth,  whose 
development  is  a  striking  feature  in  the  jaws  of  the 
Carnivora.     These  are  wanting  in  the  Rodentia,  and 
in  the  Edentata  the  incisive  teeth  are  wanting.    Some 
teeth  are  permanent,  while  others  are  deciduous,  the 
so-called  milk  teeth,  whose  places  are  supplied  by 
those  of  the  permanent  class.     In  some  cases,  teeth, 
when  once  formed,  are  unchangeable  in  their  develop- 
ment or  growth,  and  are  therefore  called  "rooted" 
teeth.     In  other  instances  the  teeth  are  so  constituted 
that  they  grow  continually  as  they  are  worn  by  use, 
and  are  called  "rootless"  teeth.     Rootless  teeth  are 
generally  cylindric  or  prismatic,  with  an  expanded 
open  cavity,  containing  a  pulp  organ  capable  of  sup- 
plying an  unlimited  growth,  while  the  rooted  tooth, 


ANATOMY  OF   THE   BEAVER. 


e(( 


when  once  fully  f'oimed,  is  unchangeable,  and  tlie  root 
serves  mereiy  as  a  support  for  the  crown.  The  beaver 
has  20  i?eth,  viz.,  2  incisors  and  8  molars  in  each 
jaw.  The  a  terior  molars,  x  in  all,  are  deciduous; 
the  crowns  of  these  teeLh  resemble  the  permanent 
ones;  the  u;  mr  have  three  divergent  roots  and  the 
lower  two.  They  are  gradually  protruded  from  their 
sockets  by  the  permanent  teeth  rising  beneath  them. 
Whether  the  cutting  teeth  of  the  beaver  should  be 
regarded  as  co  ^ne  teeth  rather  than  as  incisors,  has 
been  questionea,  inasmuch  as  they  extend  back  intr 
the  superior  maxillary  bone.  It  is  generally  held  that 
this  relation  is  only  to  accommodate  their  grc^i*- 
length,  and  that  their  uses  and  connection  with  i.e 
intermaxillaries  are  sufficient  to  sustain  the  ordinary 
view.  The  incisors  of  the  beaver  are  nearly  tri  t'i 
lar,  and  extend  far  into  the  jaw,  with  a  circular 
curve,  the  upper  forming  more,  and  the  lower  less 
than  half  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  the  radius  of 
the  curve  in  the  upper  being  one  inch,  in  the  lower 
1 "  75  ".  They  are  composed  chiefly  of  dentine,  having 
a  thin  layer  of  orange-colored  enamel  on  their  ante- 
rior surface  and  angles.  The  upper  incisors  are  con- 
tained in  a  sheath  which  projects  into  the  nasal  cav- 
ity, the  end  of  the  tooth  being  separated  by  a  thin 
vertical  plate  of  bone  from  the  first  molar.  The 
lower  iucisors  pass  under  the  roots  of  the  molars  to  a 
point  behind  them  and  below  the  posterior  foramina. 
The  dentine  of  the  incisors,  being  softer  than  the 
enamel,  wears  away  and  gives  to  the  end  of  the  tooth 
a  beveled  or  chisel  form,  with  a  sharp  anterior  edge 
of  enamel,  so  that  they  are  called  scalpriform  teeth. 
The  portion  of  the  tooth  inclosed  in  the  socket  has 

•     6 


06 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


a  conical  cavity,  filled  with  the  pulp  organ,  which 
furniH  Huccossive  layers  of  dentine  so  that  the  tooth 
continues  to  grow  as  fast  as  it  is  worn  away.  As  it 
sometimes  happens  that  a  tooth  of  this  kind  is  broken 
off,  the  opposite  tooth  has  been  found  to  grow  until 
its  outward  projection  constituted  nearly  a  circle. 
The  incisors,  it  need  hardly  be  said,  are,  accordhig  to 
the  definition,  ''rootless"  teeth.  The  molars  are 
firmly  and  compactly  set  in  the  jaws.  The  upper 
set  are  supported  on  their  outer  edge  by  a  firm  alve- 
olar ridge,  but  on  the  inside  their  sockets  are  shallow. 
The  lower  set  are  more  deeply  and  strongly  implanted 
in  the  jaw.     The  first  molars  are  largest  and  longest, 

and  the   last  are   the 
f '«•  ^-  smallest,   and    project 

but  little  from  the  jaw. 
The  inner  surface  of 
the  upper  molars  has 
one  deep  longitudinal 
groove  extending  to 
the  end  of  the  tooth,  and  the  outer  surface  three 
grooves.  These  are  similar,  but  reversed  in  tlie  lower 
tooth.  The  surface  of  the  crown  is  marked  by  a 
complicated  folding  of  enamel,  of  which  a  diagram  is 
given  (Fig.  3). 

The  dentine  between  the  layers  of  enamel  is  worn 
so  as  to  leave  the  latter  in  ridges.  Each  molar  is 
curved  so  as  to  present  two  concave  surfaces.  TLo 
upper  set  curve  backward  and  outward;  the  lower  set 
forward  and  inward.  The  surface  line  of  the  upper 
set  is  slightly  convex,  that  of  the  lower  is  concave. 
Their  surfaces  are  thus  brought  into  apposition,  and 
the  bearing  of  the  teeth  in  the  sockets  is  efiected 


Left  upper  molar, 
outside. 


Left  uniler  molar, 
outside. 


AN'ATOMT   OF   THE   BEAVKU. 


67 


:l 


without  uncluo  pressure  on  tlieir  extrcmitioH.  The 
curves  arc  rendered  ncces.sary  also  by  the  position  of 
the  teeth  in  the  jaws;  the  distance  between  the  upjier 
molars,  from  side  to  side,  being  less  than  that  of  the 
loM-er.  The  lower  set  are  also  longer  antero-poste- 
riorly  by  half  the  length  of  the  crown  of  a  tooth  than 
the  upper  set.  The  cementum  is  found  on  the  out- 
side of  the  teeth  and  in  the  spaces  where  there  are 
intlections  of  enamel;  but  where  dentine  is  opposed  to 
dentine  it  is  not  deposited  in  layers;  and,  if  at  all, 
only  in  a  granular  form.  The  question  arises  whether 
the  molars,  like  the  incisors,  belong  to  tlie  rootless 
class  of  teeth.  In  Prof.  Baird's  elaborate  Report  on 
Mammals,'  the  sub-family  CastorinjB,  embracing  the 
genera  Castor,  Aplodontia,  and  Castoroides,  is  deGned 
as  having  "rootless  molars."  Brandt  {op.  ciL,  p.  301) 
defines  the  family  Castoroides — genus  Castor — as  hav- 
ing "raolares  radicati" — rooted  molars.  If  we  exam- 
ine the  molars  of  the  beaver  in  the  young  skull,  in 
their  immature  condition  (Fig.  4),  they  are  found  to  be 
prismatic;  their  extremities  in  the  jaws  are  expanded, 
and  present  all  the  inflections  of  enamel 
seen  on  the  crown  surface.  In  this, 
their  primitive  condition,  they  grow  as 
do  other  rootless  teeth,  until  the  jaws 
have  attained  their  development.  The 
tooth  then  becomes  rooted  (Fig.  5)  and 
incapable  of  further  growth — the  pulp 
cavity  contracts,  the  opening  becomes 
lateral,  and  is  sometimes  entirely  closed ; 


Fig.  4. 


Section  of  "root- 
less" molar. 


'  General  Report  upon  the  Zoology  of  the  several  Pacific  Rail- 
road Routes,  vol.  vlii.  Mammals.  By  Spencer  P.  Baird.  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  1857. 


68 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


Fid.  T). 


Snction  of  •Toot 
eil"  molar. 


the  pulpoifran  is  atrophied;  the  tooth  is  HmaUer  wltliin 
tlmn  without  the  socket.  lu  a  sec- 
tion of  the  tooth  the  tips  of  the  enamel 
iutlectious  are  seen  of  diflerent  lengths, 
as  they  have  become  gradually  closrd. 
Correh^jonding  changes  have  taken  place 
in  the  sockets;  their  bulbous  projec- 
tions in  the  upper  jaw  being  no  longer 
visible.  While,  therefore,  the  molars 
of  the  beaver  are  both  rootless  and 
rooted  at  different  stages  in  the  growth 

of  the  animal,  the  latter  is  the  characteristic  of  its 

mature  condition. 

MUSCLES. 

It  would  exceed  our  limits  to  enumerate  the  mus- 
cles of  the  beaver.  Their  specification  is  the  less  ne- 
cessary as  the  muscles  of  the  mammalia  present  few 
important  variations  from  the  human  standard.  They 
may,  however,  be  so  modified  in  connection  with  par- 
ticular functions  as  to  merit  notice,  and  for  this  rea- 
son we  shall  allude  briefly  to  the  muscles  of  mastica- 
tion. The  power  required  for  cutting  and  grinding 
hard  ligneous  substances  is  supplied  in  the  beaver  by 
the  development  of  the  masseter  muscle.  This  mus- 
cle arises  from  the  whole  length  of  the  lower  part  of 
the  malar  bone,  and  is  inserted  into  the  crest  of  the 
lower  jaw,  and  side  of  the  jaw  to  the  anterior  end 
of  the  crest.  It  is  strengthened  by  tendinous  fibres 
passing  from  the  root  of  the  crest  into  the  body  of  the 
muscle.  At  the  junction  of  the  superior  maxillary 
and  malar  inferiorly  a  tendon  runs  forward  to  the 
process  covering  the  ante-orbital  foramen.    The  inner 


■"i 


ANATOMY  OF  THE   IJKAVER. 


piirt  of  the  iniiHseter  arises  further  forward  hy  muscle, 
aud  still  further  by  tendon,  as  far  as  between  the  1st 
and  2d  molar,  and  is  inserted  into  the  whole  space  of 
the  maxillary  before  the  transverse  plate,  into  the  an- 
terior surface  of  this  plate,  and  its  lower  arched  edge. 
By  means  of  its  anterior  tendon,  the  muscle  of  one 
side  acting,  turns  the  jaw  laterally  to  the  opposite 
side;  while  the  double  action  of  this  part  of  tlie  mus- 
cle brings  the  condyle  forward  and  fixes  it  in  the 
glenoid  cavity  for  cutting  operations.  The  cutting 
and  grinding  power  of  this  muscle  must  be  ver}-  great. 
The  temporal  muscle  arises  from  the  crest  on  the 
temporal  bone  as  far  back  as  the  occipital  crest,  and 
from  the  parietal  bone;  also  from  a  tendinous  expan- 
si(m  extending  from  the  malar  to  the  top  of  the  skull, 
and  from  the  internal  surface  of  the  malar;  and  is  in- 
serted into  the  coronoid  process  of  the  lower  jaw. 
The  pterygoid  muscles  require  no  particular  descrip- 
tion. The  digastric  muscles,  are  large,  and  fill  the 
space  anteriorly  between  the  lateral  parts  of  the  jaw. 
Their  tendon  in  front  of  the  hyoid  bone  is  connected 
with  the  mylo-hyoid.  Posteriorly  they  are  smaller 
and  aid  inserted  at  the  base  of  the  mastoid  process. 

The  tail  has  free  motion  laterally;  also  by  exten- 
sion and  flexion,  particularly  the  latter.  An  upper 
lateral  muscle  connected  with  the  transverse  processes 
of  the  bones  joins  the  gluteal.  Another  lateral  mus- 
cle extends  ^''om  the  side  of  the  tail  to  the  tuberosity 
and  ramus  oi"  the  ischium.  The  flexors  and  exten. 
sors  arise  from  the  corresponding  surfaces  of  the  sa- 
crum, and  are  each  in  two  layers.  The  flexors  are 
the  stronger  muscles;  they  extend  to  the  commence- 
ment of  the  scaly  portion  of  the  tail,  and  send  great 


70 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


numbers  of  tendons  to  the  different  bones  and  their 
processes. 

INTERNAL  ORGANS. 

The  beaver  presents  many  peculiarities  of  internal 
structure;  indeed,  as  a  whole,  it  is  a  unique  animal; 
one  that  has  hitherto  baflled  the  skill  of  naturalists  to 
classify  it. 

The  cavity  of  the  mouth  is  small,  and  destitute  of 
cheek  pouches;  the  tongue  is  long  and  fleshy,  and  has 
a  pointed  elevation  between  the  molars.  The  palate 
has  a  longitudinal  ridge  extending  back  from  the  in- 
cisors to  four  transverse  ridges.  The  epiglottis  is 
leaf-like  and  pointed,  and  the  larynx  is  short. 

It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  rodent,  in  grind- 
ing its  food,  is  confined  to  the  longitudinal  motion  of 
the  jaws.  This  is  inferred  from  the  form  of  the  gle- 
noid cavities,  and  the  condyles;  and  the  motion  in 
(juestion  has  been  adopted  as  a  distinctive  mark  of 
the  rodent  family.  Waterhouse'  affirms  that  the  ro- 
dents possess  "^/ery  little  lateral  motion  to  the  jaw, 
which,  however,  moves  freely  in  the  longitudinal  di- 
rection." At  the  same  time  he  admits  that  the  mo- 
tion in  the  hares  is  chiefly  lateral,  inasmuch  as  the 
crowns  of  their  molars  are  never  worn  flat. 

That  the  articulation  of  the  beaver  jaw  admits  of 
free  lateral  mctioii  is  easily  demonstrated  in  the  recent 
subject.  Neither  the  ligaments  nor  the  bony  struc- 
tures afford  any  impediment,  while  the  flattened 
crowns  of  the  molars,  and  the  muscular  provisions 


if 


'  A  Natural  History  of  the  Mammalia,  by  G.  R.  Waterhouse, 
vol.  li.    Rodentia.    London,  1848. 


ANATOMY   OF   THE   BEAVER. 


7] 


would  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  both  longitudinal 
and  lateral  motions  were  concerned  in  the  grinding 
operations. 


Fia.  6. 


stomach  of  beaver,  inside  view.     Oue-qiiarter  natural  size. 

The  insalivation  of  the  dry  food  of  the  beaver  is 
provided  for  by  the  extraordinary  development  of 
the  salivary  glands.  The  parotid  and  submaxillary 
glands,  united,  are  very  large,  and  cover  the  front 
and  sides  of  the  neck.  The  oesophageal  membrane 
is  white,  thick,  and  loosely  attached  to  the  muscular 
coat.  Where  it  enters  the  stomach  it  has  a  free 
fringed  margin.  The  stomach  is  one  of  the  most 
peculiar  organs  of  the  beaver;  it  is  10"  in  length  and 
4"  in  width,  and  when  filled  appears  constricted  in 
its  middle  portion.  This  is  not  unusual  in  the  ro- 
dents, but  in  the  beaver  the  structure  is  peculiar.  At 
the  cardiac  orifice  is  a  gland,  or  aggregation  of  folli- 
cles, through  the  margin  of  which  the  oesophagus 
passes.  This  gland  is  half  an  inch  in  thickness  and 
3  inches  in  diameter.  It  is  composed  of  compound 
follicles,  which  open  by  15  or  20  orifices  in  parallel 
rows.      When   the  stomach    is  distended  with   air, 


I 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


'^^  .,      .  Urcre  cells  and 

stomach  is  due  to  ^  ot  tne 

iecting  into  its  cavity,     i'       H         ,,,  „«.cle  ex 
ach  is  doubled  in,  so  that  a  „,„.„»?  -  - 

nds  across  its  canty, .  ^  fee  =^^^  ,„.„  povt.ous. 

pylorus  is  luuscula..  and  the  on  ^^^^  3^^^,, 

te  duodenun..    The  '"^   '^^^^^  upon  the  stomach 
If  the  pylorus,  -d  ts  doubl  d  ^^^  ^^^^.,,         t 

In  northern  '•eg'on.,anai  ^_^^^^^^,  ^^  ,0^. 

subsist  either  on  ^vood  01  ^K^^^^.^„^,  ;„ -oU.  a 
paratively  innutntm^.    «  ,     ^^  ^^^^  ^„„,,i  to 

Ust  amount  of  labo    on  t^  .^,^  „„,t  be  trans- 

•1    „  ninter  stock  01  jari>.,  •  ,„iinier"ed  lor 

provide  a  winter  .  ^^  ^^  subme  =e 

ported,  together  ^Mth  it»  ,^  ^^  ,,ood,  ot  the 

future  use.     The  proportion  o  ^     ^^^^^  ^^„,^ 

Uh«ls  used  by  the  beaver,  is  f^°  "     ,_^„t  „etuaUy  con- 
til  is  settled  by  examinu^rt-'^^,^  ^^^^  f,„.^ 

sumed  by  the  anuna^^  The  ^^^^  --«^>/'''^-  w 
distended  v.ith  flneh  .''°",  ■„  the  colon.  In  another 
t  same  material -s^»u>^'^U,  ^^.y  filled,  .ere 
case  the  contents  of  the  s  ^^^^^,  „,  the 

t,e  same,  ^^•eiglling  1  "'•  "^"'^^     if  bark  «ere  in- 
tln  .ere  of  the  ^--.^^^:  tave   been  in  small 
tested  .-ith  the  -""^^.^^^^therefore,  is  that   the 
quantity.      The   cunclusion.  .^^^,^y,g„,„, 

leaver  derives  its  nutnmnUio  ^^^^^^^^_^^^^ 

--  f  irr— Xtain  succulent  roots  and 

gap-wood,  ^^  nen  u  ^ 

vegetables. 


ANATOMY   OF   THE   BEAVER. 


73 


The  length  and  size  of  the  intestines  in  animals  are 
proportionate  to  the  nature  and  nutritioiis  qualities  of 
their  food.  In  the  caraivora,  the  intestinal  cantil  is 
shorter  and  less  complicated  than  in  the  herbivora. 
In  the  beaver,  the  length  of  the  small  intestines 
averages  2o  feet.  They  are  destitute  of  valvulas 
conniventes.  which  are  confined  to  man/  but  the  vil- 
lous coat  is  well  developed.  Sixteen  patches  of 
Peyer's  glands  ^\'ere  counted  in  one  subject.  The 
pancreas  is  long  and  delicate.  Its  duct  enters  the  in- 
testine 2-j"  from  the  pyloric  orifice,  while  that  of  the 
gall-bladder  enters  but  4"  from  the  pylorus. 

The  extremity  of  the  small  intestine  projects  a 
little  into  the  colon,  and  the  orifice  is  circular. 

Between  the  colon  and  cfecum  is  a  circular  band  of 
muscular  fibres  actinsr  both  as  a  ci:)nstrictor  and  a 
valve.  The  caecum  is  laraer  than  the  stomach. 
Its  capacity  when  filled  with  water  is  5  pints  and 
3  gills,  and  that  of  the  stomach  is  3  pints  and  1 
gill.  The  ciecum  is  on  a  line  with  the  colon  for  T"  or 
8",  it  then  forms  an  angle,  and  gradually  diminishes 
in  size  to  its  extremity.     In  shape  it  resembles  a 


^  "  It  is  remarkable  that  these  folds  (valvulte  conniventes)  ars 
peculiar  to  the  human  subject.  No  other  animal,  so  far  as  we  kno'iv, 
e.xiiibits  anv  arrangement  of  transverse  folds  of  the  intestinal  tnu- 
cou?  membrane  resembling  them." — 'The  Physiological  Anatomy 
and  Physiology  of  Man.  By  Todd  and  Bowman."  Phila.  ed., 
p.  574. 

Note. — In  the  stomach  of  the  beaver  I  have  found  a  very  fine 
filamentous  worm.  40'"  in  length,  species  unknown.  Large  num- 
bers of  a  long,  slender  white  worm,  6"  to  5"  in  length,  were 
found  in  the  peritoneal  cavity  (Filaria.  species  not  known),  also  in 
the  colon,  and  especially  in  the  caecum,  sclerostema,  male  and 
female,  species  not  known,  and  the  ampliistoma  subtriqietram. 


■I  i 


■     k 


Hi 


74  THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 

sickle.  The  follicular  cavities  in  the  ca^um  and 
colon,  .surrounded  bvcohtmnar  epithelium,  give  to  the 
.surface  a  warty  appearance.  The  reticulated  or  cel- 
lular appearance  of  the  colon  is  similar  to  what  is 
usually  seen  in  this  portion  of  the  intestine. 

Fir..  7. 


Colon 


C»cum  of  beiver.     0:-e-i:x:h  natural  size. 


The  greatest  width  of  the  ctecum  is  4".  and  its 
length,  measured  on  its  outer  surlace.  is  2  feet  6". 
The  colon,  measured  from  the  circular  band  to  the 
rectum,  is  7  feet  6".  At  its  commencement  there 
are  two  longitudinal  bands,  forming  numerous  folds 
and  sacculi:  after  continuing  7".  a  third  band  starts 
at  an  acute  angle  and  continues  25".  terminating  as 
it  began.  The  colon  then  diminishes  in  size,  and  in 
place  of  cells  is  alternately  expanded  and  contracied 
to  adapt  itself  to  its  contents. 

The  liver  is  long,  tlattened.  with  two  principal 
^DH^«^  rvo  smaller  ones,  and  several  fis.:-ures.  It  is 
hirdiy  ne^essarv  to  sav  that  srlucose  is  obtained  from 
it      Tli?  ?v!cen  is  smal'.  lonj  and  linear  in  Ibrm.    In 


AXATOMT   OF   THE    BEAVER. 


10 


one  animal  it  was  oi"  in  length,  in  another.  43".  with 
an  averaiie  width  of  40"'.  "Weight  of  the  large.-t  spleen. 
110  crraius. 

The  right  lung  has  two  loljes.  one  of  them  bifid. 
The  left  lung  has  four  loijes.  The  supra-renal  ca\> 
sules  in  tlie  rodents  are  relatively  large.  The  kid- 
neys present  nothing  remarkable.  Weight  of  one 
kidney  640  grains.  The  heart  weighs  714  grains, 
and  resembles  the  human  in  its  cavities,  valves,  ves- 
sels, etc.  In  one  beaver  a  lar-je  calcareous  deposit  ex- 
isted above  the  aortic  valves.  In  another  there  was 
incipient  atheroma  in  patches  in  the  same  situation. 

M.  Sarrasiu.  in  his  account  of  the  beaver,  describing 
the  heart,  savs  the  riiiht  auricle  beiuir  smaller  than  the 
left,  the  riirht  ventricle  is  filled  bv  the  conioint  actio.i 
of  the  auricle  and  the  vena  cava  inferior;  the  latter 
being  at  this  point  considerably  expanded.  Tiie  venous 
sac.  he  adds,  is  narrower  by  the  side  of  the  liver  where 
it  is  closed  bv  three  valves,  like  the  sijimoidal.  which 
prevent  the  retlux  of  the  blood  during  the  act  in 
question.  M.  Sarrasin's  account  of  the  beaver  is  so 
generally  correct  that  his  misconception  on  this  point 
is  the  more  remarkable.  It  is  well  known  that  in 
diving  animals,  whether  birds  or  mammals,  a  provi 
siou  exists  in  the  venous  svstem  against  the  evils 
suspended  respiration.  K.  Knox.  Esq..  claims  to  have 
first  noticed  it  in  the  case  of  the  l^eaver.  His  accouit 
is  contained  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Wernerian  ^  ►- 
ciety,.  vol.  iv..  part  ii..  1^23,  This  provision  cOi  .-t? 
in  an  enlargement  of  the  inferior  vena  cava  as  it 
pas.ses  through  the  fissure  of  the  liver,  constituting  a 
sinus  ill  which  a  considerable  quantity  of  blood  may 
be  temix)rarily  arrested. 


i 


n 


THE   AMERICAN  BEAVER. 


In  the  beaver  the  inferior  cava  begins  to  enlarge 
opposite  the  kidney.     The  largest  part  of  the  sinus  is 
where  it  receives  the  hepatic  veins.     After  passing 
through  the  diaphragm  it  contracts  to  its  original  size. 
The  four  hepatic  veins  are  also  capable  of  containing 
a  large  quantity  of  blood,  the  largest  readily  admit- 
ting the  adult  fore  finger.     On  opening  the  vena  cava 
in  its  length,  its  linear  width,  opposite  the  kidney,  is 
two  inches;  in  the  hepatic  fissure  it  is  three  inches; 
and  before  reaching  the  right  auricle  it  is  two  inches. 
The  capacity  of  the  venous  sinus  is  not  fully  indi- 
cated by  these  measurements,  as  the  vein  probably 
yields  to  distention.   The  ''sigmoid  valves,"  described 
by  M.  Sarrasin,  a^e  merely  the  openings  of  the  three 
hepatic  veins  seen  froLi  above.     The  blood  corpuscles 
of  the  beaver  measure  gr.'oo"  in  diameter.     The  mean 
of  24  rodents,  as  given  in  Gerber's  Anatomy,  is  3737". 
The  eye  of  the  beaver  is  small.     The  optic  nerve  is 
but  5'"  in  diameter.     In  decussating  within  the  skull 
the  nerve  of  the  right  side  passes  under  the  left.   The 
reputed  sagacity  of  the  beaver  is  not  accounted  for 
by  the  size  or  <ievelopment  of  the  brain.     The  impla- 
cental  mammals   (marsupials  and  monotremes)   are 
the   lowest  of  the  mammiferous  class,  according  to 
Prof  R.  Owen;  their  brains  resembling  those  of  birds, 
in  the  absence  of  the  great  commissure,  or  corpus 
callosum.     The  brains  of  rodents  are  a  step  in  ad- 
vance.    The  beaver  brain  is  entirely  smooth  on  the 
surface,  and,  although  the  cerebellum  is  uncovered, 
the  posterior  development  is  greater  than  in  the  mar- 
supials.   The  olfactory  lobe  is  large.    The  optic  lobes 
are  covered.     Width  of  cerebral  hemisphere,  83'";  of 
corpus  callosum,  60'";  length  of  brain  before  removal, 


ANATOMY  OP   THE    BEAVER. 


77 


'f 


1"  80'".  Weight  of  cerebrum,  33G  grs.;  of  cerebellum, 
68  grs.;  of  medulla  and  peduncles,  09  grs.;  total  of 
encephalon,  473  grs.  The  proportion  of  the  marsu- 
pial brain  to  the  body  in  three  animals,  as  stated  by 
Prof.  Owen,  is  1  to  520,  1  to  600,  and  1  to  614.  In 
the  beaver  it  is  1  to  532.  The  average  of  the  mam- 
malia, according  to  Leuret,  is  1  to  186;  of  birds,  1  to 
212.    In  man  it  is  1  to  36. 


Note. — For  description  of  the  castoreum  and  generative  organs 
of  the  beaver,  see  Appendix  A,  Note  3. 


CHAPTER   III. 


BEAVER   DxlMS. 


I 


Remnrknhle  B(aver  Di=trict— Number  of  Dearer  Dam?— Other  Works — 
rharaetiT  of  ti.-:-  Itegion — Beavers  now  Abundant — Map  of  Area — Object 
of  Dnnis— Their  Great  Age— Of  Two  Kinds  — Interlactd  Stick-Dam — 
Solid  Bank  Dain — (iroat  Bearer  Dam  at  Grass  Lake— lis  Diu:"")=ions — 
•Surrounding  Landsc.<pe — Mode  of  Construction — Lower  Face — Water 
Face— Great  Curve — Mode  of  discharging  Surplus  Water — Artistic  Ap- 
pearance <if  tLi<  Dam — Necessity  for  Continuous  Bejiairs — Measurements 
— Cubic  Contents — Phoiograpli — Manner  of  taking  same — Relation  of 
Dam  below — .Same  of  one  above — Manner  of  Repairing  Dams. 

The  particular  beaver  district  which  I  have  selected 
for  presentation  U  situated  upon  the  summit  level  of 
the  coast  range  of  hills  that  skirt  the  southwest  .-^hore 
of  Lake  Superior,  immediately  west  of  Marquette. 
It  is  'he  district  shown  upon  the  map.  In  length, 
from  "Tst  to  west,  it  is  eight  miles,  and  six  miles 
broad,  from  north  to  south.  This  area  is  traversed  by 
a  small  stream,  known  as  Carp  River,  whicli  empties 
into  Lake  Superior,  and  also  by  the  Ely  Branch  of 
the  Esconauba'  River,  which  rises  in  this  area  and 
flows  southward  into  Lake  Michigan.  It  is,  therefore, 
seen  to  embrace  a  portion  of  the  dividing  ridge  that 
separates  the  drainage  of  the  two  great  lakes,  with 
slopes  in  both  directions.  Within  this  district  are 
situated  the  three  remarkable  hills  of  rock  iron  ore, 
now  so  well  known  throughout  the  country  as  the 
Jackson,  Cleveland,  and  Lake  Superior  Iron  Mines, 


Ish-ko-nau-ba. 


(78) 


BEAVKR   DAMS. 


t 


3 


besides  several  other  iron  locations  of  great  value. 
These  are  hut  the  commencement  of  those  vast  ferru- 
ginous deposits  which  distinguish  this  portion  of 
Upper  Michigan  over  all  otiier  parts  of  the  United 
States.'  Lake  Angeline,  situated  upon  the  summit 
level  of  the  coast  range,  is  850  feet  ahove  the  le^  (d  of 
Lake  Superior,  from  which  it  is  distant  about  sixteen 
miles.  From  the  number  of  small  lakes  in  this  in- 
considerable area,  from  the  hills  and  lowlands  into 
which  it  is  broken  up,  and  from  the  number  of  small 
streams  to  which  they  give  rise,  it  is  well  watered, 
and  therefore  extremely  well  adapted  to  beaver  occu- 
pation. There  are  other  districts  of  the  same  extent, 
in  its  immediate  vicinity,  particularly  around  Lake 
Michigame,"  and  upon  the  main  branch  of  the  Esco- 
nauba,  scarcely  inferior  to  it  in  the  number  of  beaver 
dams  and  other  erections  which  thev  contain;  but  the 
one  selected  is  sufficiently  furnished  in  these  respects 
to  yield  ample  materials  for  the  illustration  of  the 
works  of  the  beaver.     Since  it  is  a  material  part  of 


^  The  great  richness  of  this  ore  is  shown  by  the  following 
analysis : 

Iron 70-22      Or  Peroxide  of  Iron 90-58 

Oxygen 29-.5.3       "  Magnetic  Oxide 'J-l" 

Insoluble 20       "  Silica I'O 

99-55  OU'55 

Foster  and  Whitney's  Report,  Geology  Lake  Superior  Land 
District.    E.xeeutive  Doc,  No.  4  fSenate),  1851,  p.  74. 

"^  Md-she-gd'-me,  large  lake.  The  Ojibwas  classify  lakes  into 
three  kinds:  Sd-gd-e'-gd,  small  lake;  Md-she-gd'-me,  large  lake; 
and  Git-chc-gd'-me,  great  lake.  The  last  is  applied  to  the  "great 
lakes"  indiscriminately,  and  to  the  ocean. 


^4,     *■ 


■  80 


f 


THE   AMERICAN   HEAVER. 


my  plnn  to  .show  how  romplotely  they  occupy  a  <?iven 
district,  as  their  iiumhers  increase,  as  well  ns  the  ri'hi- 
tions  of  their  dams  and  other  erections  to  each  otlier, 
I  have  explored  the  area  covered  by  the  map  with 
more  thorouglmess  tiian  any  other,  in  order,  as  far  as 
possible,  to  exhibit  all  of  their  works  within  its  limits. 
Undoul)te(lly  many  of  the  lesser  have  escaped  observa- 
tion, but  the  principal  and  most  important  have  been 
found.  There  are  within  this  area  sixty-three  beaver 
dams,  without  reckoning  the  smallest,  from  those 
which  are  fifty  feet  in  length,  and  forming  ponds  cov- 
ing a  quarter  of  an  acre  of  land,  to  those  which  are 
three  hundred  and  five  hundred  feet  in  length,  with 
ponds  covering  from  twenty  to  sixty  acres  of  land. 
It  also  contains  many  acres  of  beaver  meadows,  many 
lodges,  burrows,  and  artificial  canals. 

A  dense  forest  overspreads  the  land,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  beaver  meadows  and  the  clearings 
made  near  the  mines.  Upon  the  margins  of  the 
principal  streams  the  prevailing  trees  are  the  tam- 
arack and  the  spruce;  upon  the  first  rising  ground, 
back  of  these,  we  find  the  white  and  yellow  birch, 
the  soft  and  bird's-eye  maple,  the  poplar  and  the  ash ; 
and  uj^on  the  hills  the  sugar  maple,  the  oak,  and  sev- 
eral species  of  pine.  Among  the  bushes  are  the  wil- 
low, the  alder,  and  the  cranberry.  In  this  area, 
therefore,  are  assembled  all  the  elements  tending  to 
form  an  inviting  beaver  district;  namely,  numerous 
small  rivulets  flowing  through  hard  wood  lands,  upon 
the  bark  of  the  trees  of  which  they  depend  chiefly 
for  subsistence;  and  shallow,  sluggish  rivers,  suffi- 
ciently narrow  between  their  banks  to  be  traversed 
by  dams,  and  having  deciduous  trees  adjacent,  and 


'i 


BRAVER   DAMS. 


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roacliMblc  hy  nioniis  of  nrtificinl  ciumls  cut  tlnouj^h 
the  lowliinds  and  filled  willi  .      jT  from  the  ponds. 

With  tlio  exception  of  Mjiniuette,  and  ft  small  set- 
tlement at  the  mouth  of  the  Chocolate  Kiver,  and 
with  the  further  exception  of  several  settlements  upcm 
the  lines  of  the  Marquette  and  (3ntona<,'on,  and  the 
Peninsular  Railroads,  the  entire  region  from  Keweenaw 
Bay  of  Liike  Sujjerior  to  Green  Bay  of  Lake  Michigan, 
is  still  an  unbroken  and  an  uninhabited  wilderness. 
Prior  to  the  discovery  of  the  iron  deposits  in  this  dis- 
trict, about  the  year  1846,  it  had  scarcely  been  trav- 
ersed except  by  the  trapper,  the  surveyor,  and  the 
Ojibwa  Indians,  the  latter  of  whom    possessed   the 
country  as  a  part  of  their  hereditary  domain.     From 
the  dense  undergrowth  of  the  forest,  from  the  swampy 
character  of  a  large  portion  of  the  lands,  and  from 
the  numerous  windfalls,  extending  in  some  places  for 
miles,  it  is  even  now  extremely  difficult  to  traverse 
this  region  in  any  direction  except  upon  Indian  trails; 
and  no  one  but  an  experienced  woodman  can  safely 
undertake  an  expedition  into  this  wilderness  for  any 
considerable  distance.     Throughout  this  entire  area 
beavers  are  now  abundant,  and  for  the  most  part  un- 
disturbed in  their  habitations.    Their  works  meet  the ' 
eye  at  almost  every  point  on  the  numerous  streams 
with  which  it  is  covered  as  with  a  net-work;  and  they 
aftbrd  to  the  observer  the  additional   advantage  of 
being  in  a  perfect  condition  as  well  as  in  actual  use. 
Each  dam  is  not  only  complete  in  itself,  but  there  is 
a  series  of  these  dams,  one  above  the  other,  on  the 
same  stream,  so  located  as  not  to  interfere  with  each 
other,  and  constructed  so  near  together  +hat  the  lower 
one  of  two  usually  sets  back  its  pond  quite  near  to 

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THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


that  immediately  above.  In  this  manner  every  por- 
tion of  a  stream  is  appropriated  by  them  for  the  pur- 
poses of  habitation. 

The  accompanying  map,  which  embraces  but  a 
fragment  of  the  area  described,  was  drawn  by  Mr. 
L.  K.  Dorrance,  chief  engineer,  and  afterwards  revised 
by  William  H.  Steele,  Esq.,  assistant  engineer  of  the 
Marquette  and  Ontonagon  Railroad,  from  materials 
furnished  by  the  author.  Each  section  delineated  is 
a  mile  square,  the  sections  corresponding  with  those 
upon  the  official  United  States  Township  maps.  With 
this  integer  of  measurement,  the  distances  between 
the  several  dams  and  the  size  of  the  several  ponds 
can  be  readily  ascertained  as  well  as  the  actual  lo- 
cation of  each.  The  size  of  some  of  the  ponds  may 
be  somewhat  exaggerated,  but  the  map  is  substan- 
tially accurate.  For  convenience  of  reference  the 
dams  are  numbered  consecutively.  The  sites  of  a 
large  number  of  lodges,  the  location  of  the  principal 
beaver  meadows,  and  of  several  beaver  canals  are  also 
indicated  on  the  map. 

The  dam'  is  the  principal  structure  of  the  beaver. 
It  is  also  the  most  important  of  his  erections  as  it  is 
'  the  most  extensive,  and  because  its  production  and 
preservation  could  only  be  accomplished  by  patient 
and  long-continued  labor.  In  point  of  time,  also,  it 
precedes  the  lodge,  since  the  floor  of  the  latter  and 
the  entrances  to  its  chamber  are  constructed  with 
reference  to  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  pond.  The 
object  of  the  dam  is  the  formation  of  an  artificial 
pond,  the  principal  use  of  which  is  the  refuge  it  affords 

^  O-ko'-min,  beaver  dam. 


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BEAVKR    DAMS. 


83 


to  them  when  assailed,  and  the  water  connection  it 
ffives  to  tlieir  lodges,  and  to  their  bnrrows  in  the 
banks.  Hence,  as  the  level  of  the  pond  mnst,  in  all 
cases,  rise  from  one  to  two  feet  above  these  entrance's 
for  the  protection  of  the  animal  from  pursnit  and 
capture,  the  snrfiice  level  of  the  pond  nmst,  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  be  subject  to  their  immediate 
control.  As  the  dam  is  not  an  absolute  necessity  to 
the  beaver  for  the  maintenance  of  his  life,  his  normal 
habitation  being  rather  natural  ponds  and  rivers,  and 
burrows  in  their  b.anks,  it  is,  in  itself  considered,  a 
remarkable  fact  that  he  should  have  voluntarily 
transferred  himself,  by  means  of  dams  and  ponds  of 
his  own  construction,  from  a  natural  to  an  artificial 
mode  of  life. 

Some  of  these  dams  are  so  extensive  as  to  forbid 
the  supposition  that  they  were  the  exclusive  work  of 
a  single  pair,  or  of  a  single  family  of  beavers :  but  it 
does  not  follow,  as  has  very  generally  been  supposed, 
that  several  families,  or  a  colony,  unite  for  the  joint 
construction  of  a  dam.  After  a  careful  examination 
of  some  hundreds  of  these  structures,  and  of  the 
lodges  and  burrows  attached  to  many  of  them,  I  am 
altogether  satisfied  that  the  larger  dams  were  not  the 
joint  product  of  the  labor  of  large  numbers  of  beavers 
working  together,  and  brought  thus  to  immediate 
completion ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  that  they  arose  from 
small  beginnings,  and  were  built  upon  year  after  year 
until  they  finally  reached  that  size  which  exhausted 
the  capabilities  of  the  location ;  after  which  they  were 
maintained  for  centuries,  at  the  ascertained  standard 
by  constant  repairs.  So  far  as  my  observations  have 
enabled  me  to  form  an  opinion,  i  think  they  were 


BEAVKR    DAMS. 


83 


to  them  when  assailed,  and  the  water  oonneetion  it 
gives  to  tlieir  lodges,  and  to  their  bnrrows  in  the 
banks.  Hence,  as  the  level  of  the  pond  must,  in  all 
cases,  rise  from  one  to  two  feet  above  these  entrances 
for  the  protection  of  the  animal  from  pursuit  and 
capture,  the  surface  level  of  the  pond  nnist,  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  be  subject  to  their  innnediate 
control.  As  the  dam  is  not  an  absolute  necessity  to 
the  beaver  for  the  maintenance  of  his  life,  his  normal 
habitation  being  rather  natural  ponds  and  rivers,  and 
burrows  in  their  banks,  it  is,  in  itself  considered,  a 
remarkable  fact  that  he  should  have  voluntarily 
transferred  himself,  by  means  of  dams  and  ponds  of 
his  own  construction,  from  a  natural  to  an  artificial 
mode  of  life. 

Some  of  these  dams  are  so  extensive  as  to  forbid 
the  supposition  that  they  were  the  exclusive  work  of 
a  single  pair,  or  of  a  single  family  of  beavers:  but  it 
does  not  follow,  as  has  very  generally  been  supposed, 
that  several  families,  or  a  colony,  unite  for  the  joint 
construction  of  a  dam.  After  a  careful  examination 
of  some  hundreds  of  these  structures,  and  of  the 
lodges  and  burrows  attached  to  many  of  them,  I  am 
altogether  satisfied  that  the  larger  dams  were  not  the 
joint  product  of  the  labor  of  large  numbers  of  beavers 
working  together,  and  brought  thus  to  immediate 
completion ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  that  they  arose  from 
small  beginnings,  and  were  built  upon  year  after  year 
until  they  finally  reached  that  size  which  exhausted 
the  capabilities  of  the  location ;  after  which  they  were 
maintained  for  centuries,  at  the  ascertained  standard 
by  constant  repairs.  So  far  as  my  observations  have 
enabled  me  to  form  an  opinion,  I  think  they  were 


84 


THE    AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


ii 


usually,  if   not  iiivariably,  commenced   by  a   single 
pair,  or  a  sinLilo  family  of  beavers;  and  that  when  in 
the  course  of  time,  by  the  gradual  increase  of  the 
dam,  the  pond  had  become  sufliciently  enlarged  to 
aecommodiite  more  fiimilies  than  one,  other  families 
to(jk  up  their  residence  upon  it,  and  afterward  con- 
tributed, bv  their  labor,  to  its  maintenance.     There 
is  no  satisfactory  evidence  that  the  American  beavers 
either  live  or  work   in  colonies;    and  if  some  such 
cases  have  been  observed,  it  will  either  be  found  to  be 
an  exception  to  the  general  rule,  or  in  consequence  of 
the  sudden  destruction  of  a  Avork  upon  the  mainte- 
nance of  which  a  number  of  families  were  at  the  time 
depending. 

The  great  age  of  the  larger  dams  is  shown  by  their 
size.  1)V  the  large  amount  of  solid  materials  thev  con- 
tain,  and  by  the  destruction  of  the  primitive  forest 
within  the  area  of  the  ponds;  and  also  by  the  extent 
of  the  beaver  meadows  along  the  margins  of   the 
streams  where  dams  are  maintained,  and  by  the  hum- 
mocks formed  u^wn  them  through  the  annual  growth 
and  decay  of  vegetation   in   separate  hills.     These 
meadows  were  undoubtedly  covered  with  trees  adapted 
to  a  wet  soil  when  the  dams  were  constructed.     It 
must  have  required  long  periods  of  time  to  destroy 
every  vestige  of  the  ancient  forest  by  the  increased 
saturaiton  of  the  earth,  accompanied  with  occasional 
overflows  from  the  streams.    The  CAnidence  from  these, 
and  other  sources,  tends  to  show  that  these  dams  have 
existed  in  the  same  places  for  hundreds  and  thousands 
of  years,  and  that  they  have  been  maintained  by  a 
system  of  continuous  repairs. 

In  external  appearance  there  are  two  distinct  kinds 


11 


■m 


BEAVER    DAMS. 


85 


■ '-^■. 


of  beaver  dams,  althoiiL'h  thev  are  all  constructed  on 
the  same  principle.  One.  tli*'  >tirk-(lam.  consists  of 
interlaced  stick  and  pole  work  u[)()n  the  lower  face, 
with  an  eml)ankment  of  earth,  intermixed  with  the 
same  materials  on  the  npper,  or  water  face  of  the 
dam.  This  species  is  usually  found  on  brooks,  and 
upon  the  larger  streams  without  defined  banks.  The 
greater  proportion  of  beaver  dams  are  of  this  descri[)- 
tion.  The  other  is  the  solid-bank  dam,  which  is 
usually  found  lower  down  on  the  same  stream,  where 
its  banks  have  become  defined,  and  it  has  a  channel 
of  some  depth,  and  a  uniform  current.  In  such  places 
the  large  amount  of  earth  and  mud,  used  to  strengthen 
the  work,  buries  and  conceals  the  greater  part  of  the 
brush  and  poles  used  to  bind  the  embankment  to- 
gether; thus  giving  to  it,  in  the  course  of  time,  the 
appearance,  on  both  slopes,  of  a  solid  dike,  or  bank 
of  earth.  In  the  first  species  the  surplus  water  per- 
colates through  the  dam  along  its  entire  length,  while, 
in  the  second,  it  is  discharged  through  a  single  open- 
ing in  the  crest  formed  for  that  purpose. 

At  the  place  selected  for  the  construction  of  a  dam, 
the  ground  is  usually  firm  and  often  stony;  and  when 
across  the  channel  of  a  tlowing  stream,  a  hard  rather 
than  a  soft  bottom  is  preferred.  Such  places  are 
necessarily  unfavorable  for  the  insertion  of  stakes  in 
the  ground,  if  such  were,  in  fact,  their  practice  in 
building  dams.  The  theory  upon  which  beaver  dams 
are  constructed  is  perfectly  simple,  and  involves  no 
such  necessity.  Soft  earth  intermixed  with  vegetable 
fibre  is  used  to  form  an  embankment,  with  sticks, 
brush,  and  poles  imbedded  within  these  materials  to 
bind  them  together,  and  to  impart  to  them  the  requi- 


u 


8G 


THE  AMERICAN'   BEAVEB. 


site  solidity  to  resist  the  effocts  botli  of  pressure  and 
of  saturation.  Small  sticks  and  brush  are  used,  in 
the  first  instance,  with  mud,  earth,  and  stones  for 
down  weight.  Consequently  these  dams  are  extremely 
rude  at  their  commencement,  and  they  do  not  attain 
tlieir  remarkably  artistic  appearance  until  after  they 
iiave  been  raised  to  a  considerable  height,  and  have 
been  maintained,  by  a  system  of  annual  repairs,  for  a 
number  of  years. 

The  open  stick-work  dams  are  the  most  interesting 
as  well  as  the  most  common,  and  they  will  be  first 
presented. 

This  dam,  which  is  represented  in  the  engraving 
(Plate  VI.),  and  which  is  marked  No.  8  upon  the  map, 
is  the  most  remarkable  of  all  the  structures  of  this  de- 
scription of  which  I  have  gained  a  knowledge.   1  have 
seen  others  that  were  longer,  and  still  others  that  were 
higher  for  short  distances,  but  none  that  united,  to  the 
same  extent,  the  two  features  of  great  length  and 
continuous  elevation,  or  that  contained  so  large  an 
amount  of  solid  material.    It  is  two  hundred  and  sixty 
feet  and  ten  inches  in  length,  measured  with  a  tape 
line  along  the  crest  of  the  dam,  and  six  feet  and  two 
inches  in  vertical  height  at  the  centre  of  the  great 
curve,  with  a  slope,  at  the  latter  point,  on  the  lower 
side  or  face  of  the  dam,  of  thirteen  feet  in  length. 

The  site  was  well  selected  for  a  structure  of  this 
mngnitude.  Lake  Diamond  is  situated  about  half  a 
mile  to  the  eastward,  in  the  midst  of  high  hills, 
and  maintains  its  level  about  fifteen  feet  higher 
than  the  level  of  the  pond  formed  by  the  dam.  Its 
outlet  forms  a  small  brook  a  few  feet  over  and  a 
few  inches  deep,  and  is  the  commencement  of  the 


\ 


^ 


[' 


I 


I 


BRAVER   DAMS. 


87 


K 


Ely  Brnncli  of  the  Ksconanba  River.  Across  tliis 
brook,  and  about  half  a  iiiiK'  Im'Iow  ttio  point  wiu'ro 
it  CMuoru'i'H  from  tiie  lake,  tbo  <biin  was  conHtructcd. 
It  was  un<loul)to(lly  ntnall  at  (irst,  but  wan  raist'il  and 
ext(Midt'd  in  course  of  time,  until  it  reached  tii(»  base 
of  the  hills  on  either  side.  At  tbis  ])oint  the  hills 
a|)[)roacli  each  other  within  three  hundred  feet,  while 
immediately  above  it  they  recede  both  to  the  ri<;ht 
and  to  the  left,  and  back,  near  the  outlet  of  the  lake, 
close  in  again,  thus  forming  an  amphithoatro  of  hills, 
with  a  slight  depression  at  the  outlet,  a!id  another  de- 
pression to  the  right,  and  inclosing  a  level  area  of 
about  one  hundred  acres  of  land.  The  large  pond 
created  by  the  dam,  and  which  is  known  as  Grass 
Lake,  overspreads  about  sixty  acres  of  this  level  area. 
A  forest  of  heavy  timber  covers  the  whole  tract  with 
the  exception  of  the  pond,  and  of  a  narrow  fringe  of 
beaver  meadow  here  and  there.  Along  the  skirts  of 
the  pond,  in  its  shallowest  parts,  trees,  though  dead, 
are  still  standing,  from  which  it  is  evident  that  the  dam 
now  maintains  the  pond  at  a  higher  level  than  in  for- 
mer years,  or,  in  other  words,  that  it  has  been  raised 
to  a  higher  level  within  the  lifetime  of  these  trees. 
These  several  features  of  the  landscape  are  distinctly 
seen  in  the  engraving.  For  a  large  dam,  and  the 
formation  of  a  large  pond,  which  were  to  result  from 
the  labor  of  many  years  best-owed  by  many  successive 
generations  of  industrious  beavers,  this  site  was  not 
only  well  selected,  but  it  afforded  greater  advantages 
than  any  other  within  the  area  indicated  on  the 
map. 

At  the  place  where  it  is  constructed  the  ground  is 
neither  soft  nor  alluvial,  but  composed  of  iirai  earth, 


88 


THE   AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


it  I 


^  I 


intermixed  with  loose  stones,  large  and  small.     The 
crest  line  of  the  dam  is,  of  course,  horizontal,  although 
sinuous,  while  its  base  line  conforms  to  the  irregulari- 
ties of  the  original  surface.     At  the  point  where  it 
crossed  tlie  thread  of  the  stream  it  would  necessarily 
be  the  highest.     Here  the  difference  in  level  between 
the  water  in  the  pond  and  the  water  below  the  dam 
was  ascertained  to  be  five  feet;  the  crest  of  the  dam 
rising  but  two  inches  above  the  level  of  the  pond,  and 
the  water  below  it  being  twelve  inches  deep.     The 
vertical  height  of  the  structure  at  the  great  curve, 
therefore,  was  six  feet  and  two  inches.     This  differ- 
ence of  level  decreases  as  either  end  is  approached, 
until  it  diminishes  to  one  foot.     At  the  ends,  conse- 
quently, the  precise  condition  of  the  structure,  at  its 
lowest  stages,  could   be  seen;    not  as   at   first  con- 
structed, but  as  it  would  appear  after  it  had  settled 
down  and  had  been  repaired  and  strengthened  from 
time  to  time.     Here  it  was  built  with  small  sticks, 
from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  from 
one  to  two  and  three  feet  in  length.     On  the  lower 
side,  which  we  shall  call  the  face  of  the  dam,  the 
sticks  are  arranged  promiscuously,  but  usually  with 
their  lower  ends  against  the  ground,  and  their  upper 
ends  elevated  and  pointing  up  stream,  against  the 
water  slope  of  the  dam,  thus  forming  an  inclined 
bank  of  interlaced  stick-work.    Earth  and  mud,  inter- 
mixed with  sticks  and  brush,  form  che  water  face  or 
upper  slope  of  the  dam,  giving  to  it  the  nature  and 
appearance  of  a  solid  embankment.    Thus  the  lower 
face  of  the  dam  presents  a  mass  of  interlaced  sticks 
closely  banked  together,  but  still  open  and  loose,  and 
free  from  earth,  while  the  upper  or  water  face  is  a 


^ __I, 


^ 


< 


i: 


BEAVER   DAMS. 


89 


S 


t- 


'   t 


solid  bank  of  earth  bound  together  by  a  mass  of 
sticks  imbedded  and  concealed  from  view.  A  trans- 
verse section,  therefore,  is  a  triangle  with  the  base 
longer  than  either  side.  We  thus  have  a  section  of 
a  dam  about  a  foot  high,  constructed  with  the  least 
amount  of  materials,  but  holJing  the  water  securely, 
and  yet  so  fragile  that  the  weight  of  a  man  would 
sink  it  below  the  surface  of  the  water. 

At  the  great  curve,  near  the  centre  of  the  dam,  the 
minute  as  well  as  general  structure  of  a  large  beaver 
dam  can  be  seen  to  the  highest  advantage.  The  en- 
graving (Plate  VII.)  represents  a  section,  upwards  of 
one  hundred  feet  wide,  through  the  centre  of  the  dam, 
including  the  great  carve.  It  is  engraved  three-fourths 
the  size  of  the  photograph.  Small  sticks  are  no  longer 
used,  but  billets  of  wood  and  poles  trimmed  of  their 
branches  and  stripped  of  their  bark,  and  varying  in  size 
from  one  to  three  inches  in  diameter,  and  from  three  to 
seven  and  ten  feet  in  length.  These  short  cuttings  and 
poles,  which  are  interlaced  and  arranged  in  every  con- 
ceivable way,  form  a  sloping  bank  at  an  angle  of  from 
35°  to  40°.  Their  main  direction  is  from  the  ground 
upward  toward  the  water  face  of  the  dam.  They  are 
neither  parallel  with  each  other,  nor  in  courses,  but 
are  banked  together  in  an  irregular  but  compact  mass, 
and  are  so  adjusted  as  to  form  an  innumerable  series 
of  props  or  braces,  w^ith  their  lower  ends  against  the 
ground,  and  their  upper  ends  incorporated  in  the  em- 
bankment which  forms  the  water  face  of  the  dam. 
These  poles,  however,  formed  no  part  of  the  original 
structure,  but  were  added  from  year  to  year  to  repair 
the  waste  of  the  dam  from  settlement  and  decay,  and 
to  increase  its  height.     We  mav  therefore  conceive 


:-mf 


90 


THE   AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


tliiit  tlu'  (liim  iit  this  ))()int  was  comiiipncerl,  as  near 
tho  (ikIs,  with  brush  uiid  polos  hiid  horizontally,  but 
IcMigthvvisc  with  tho  current,  .-uul  filled  in  with  earth 
and  mud  int(M'niixed  with  roots  and  <^M'ass,  and  that 
as  the  work  advanced,  the  upper  ends  became  im- 
bedded and  concealed  from  view,  while  th(;  lower 
projected  beyond  the  embankment.  In  course  of 
time,  by  the  process  of  enlargement  and  repair,  it 
would  assume  its  present  form  as  shown  in  the  engrav- 
ing. With  its  increase  in  height,  the  crest  of  the 
dam  would  tend  to  draw  down  stream  from  a  line 
perpendicular  with  the  original  centre  of  its  base.  In 
consequence  of  this,  the  open  stick  and  pole  work, 
which  forms  the  face  of  the  dam,  advances  upward 
and  under  the  water  of  the  pond  as  you  descend  ver- 
tically from  its  crest  to  the  bottom  of  the  structure. 
None  (jf  the  poles  on  the  face  of  the  dam  at  the  great 
curve  were  as  long  as  the  slope  itself.  They  appeared 
to  be  loosely  thrown  together,  but  on  attempting  to 
raise  a  number  of  them  they  were  found  to  be  fast  at 
one  end  or  the  other,  or  so  interlaced  that  it  was  dif- 
ficult to  remove  them. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  dam,  at  the  place 
•where  the  greatest  strength  was  required,  is  in  the 
form  of  a  curve,  with  its  curvature  up  stream,  and 
that  the  line  of  this  curve  is  more  than  a  hundred 
feet  in  length.  The  use  of  the  curve  in  beaver  dams 
is  of  very  conunon  occurrence,  and  it  has  always  Ijeen 
regarded  as  a  striking  evidence  of  the  intelligence  of 
its  builders.  In  the  engraving  its  form  does  not  dis- 
tinctly appear,  from  the  reduced  scale  upon  w^hich 
the  work  is  shown,  but  when  the  original  photograph 
is  placed  in  a  camera  of  large  magnifying  power,  the 


<  III 


i  I 


ZT 


I 


I 


II 


BEAVER   HAMS. 


91 


m 


OutHno  of  the  curve  is  fully  revealcrl.  In  onlor  to 
indicate  still  more  coinplctoly  the  crest  line  of  the 
dam,  a  ground  plan  of  the  entire  structure,  drawn 
from  a(!tual  measurements,  is  given  in  the  engraving, 
Plate  VJII. 

It  is  designed  to  show  the  crest  line  and  the  lower 
face  of  the  dam.  With  the  enjiraviniis,  and  the  nieas- 
urements  in  detail,  hereafter  given,  the  general  ap- 
pearance, Ibrm,  and  structure  of  the  dam  will  be  lully 
understood. 

The  curve  is  one  of  the  striking  features  of  a  beaver 
dam.  They  are  almost  invariably  found  where  the 
thread  of  the  stream  originally  ran,  and  are  restricted 
to  the  class  of  dams  now  under  consideration.  In  the 
largest  structures,  the  convexit}'  of  the  curve  is  usually 
up  stream,  but  this  is  not  always  the  case.  Several  of 
those  represented  on  the  map  curved  down  stream  at 
the  point  where  the  dam  was  the  highest.  This  one 
shows  a  reverse  curve  down  stream  nearly  as  large 
and  well  defined  as  the  principal  one  in  the  opposite 
direction.  It  is  generally  asserted  that  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  curve,  with  its  convexity  up  stream,  was  the 
result  of  intelligence  and  design  on  the  part  of  the 
architects;  and  that  its  use  at  the  precise  point  where 
the  pressure  of  the  water  is  the  greatest,  aflbrds  con- 
clusive evidence  that  the  beavers  understood  its  me- 
chanical advantages.  Whether  these  curves  were 
the  result  of  accident  or  of  design  is  a  question.  We 
must  suppose  that  this  dam  was  commenced  at  the 
thread  of  the  stream  where  the  great  curve  is  found, 
and  it  seems  not  improbable  that  its  curvature  may 
be  due  to  the  flow  of  the  water  on  either  side  when 
the   original  channel  was  first  obstructed   by   their 


92 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


rising  work.     After  a  quantity  of  materials  had  be- 
conie  firiiiiv  anchored  in  tiie  bed  of  the  stream,  tlie 
tendency  would  be  to  a  downward  movement  of  its 
margins  by  the  force  of  the  water,  which  would  give 
to  it  at  its  connnencement  a  curvilinear  form.     With 
the  obstruction  of  the  channel  a  pimd  would  begin  to 
rise,  but  the  surplus  water  would  pass  by  on  either 
side  at  a  higher  level;  consequently^  as  the  work  pro- 
gressed, the  contest  with  the  water  would  be  renewed, 
with  similar  results  at  other  points,  and  when   the 
dam  was  raised  sufficiently  high,  and  extended  suffi- 
ciently far  to  arrest  the  How  of  the  water  in  open 
channels,  and  to  discharge  it  through  the   dam,  it 
would  be  very  sinuous  throughout  its  entire  extent. 
Such,  in  fact,  is  the  general  character  of  all  the  dams 
constructed    upon  the   smaller    brooks.      In    larger 
streams,  with  their  channels  deepest  in  the  centre, 
we  may  conceive  of  a  downward  movement  of  their 
materials  by  the  force  of  the  current,  or  the  pressure 
of  t  he  water  at  the  point  where  the  stream  is  the 
deepest,  and  that  this  movement  may  have  occurred 
whiL  the  work  of  construction  was  in  progress.     A 
downward  curve  is  much  more  common   than   the 
reverse  in  the  larger  streams.     It  is  not  a  little  sin- 
gular tliat  the  dams  across  the  streams  that  discharge 
the  largest  volume  of  water  are  shorter  and  lower 
than  those  upon  the  smaller  brooks,  and  that  in  the 
former  the  prevailing  direction  of  the  curve  at  the 
highest  point  in  the  structure  is  down  stream,  while 
in  the  latter  it  is  in  the  opposite  direction.      The 
mode  of  construction  undoubtedly  varied  with  the 
character  of  the  stream,  and  with  the  volume  and 
rapidity  of  the  current.     A  comparison  of  a  large 


\ 


r 


HEAVEK    DAMS. 


93 


I  m 


number  of  these  dams,  constnu'ted  in  very  dissimilar 
situations,  tends  to  show  that  their  curvature  is  purely 
accidental. 

The  reinninder  of  this  dam  is  nearly  as  remarkable  as 
the  central  portion,  and  much  longer  as  well  as  larger 
than  tlie  enjrraving  represents  (Plate  VI.),  unless  due 
allowance  is  made  for  perspective.  The  focal  point 
occupied  by  the  instrument  was  so  near  the  struc- 
ture as  to  depreciate  quite  rap'  ^ly  its  extreme  parts. 
Throuiihout  its  entire  extent  of  two  hundred  and 
sixty  feet  the  face  of  the  dam  is  composed,  as  at  the 
centre,  of  interlaced  sticks  and  poles,  and  presents 
the  same  general  appearance,  with  a  gradual  abate- 
ment in  height. 

On  the  water  face  of  the  dam  neither  a  stick  nor 
a  pole  is  seen,  but  a  regular  sloping  embankment  of 
earth,  from  the  crest  downward,  under  the  waters  of 
the  pond.  This  face  of  the  dam  is  precisely  in  the 
form  of  the  shelving  bank  of  a  stream. 

There  is  no  opening  in  the  top  of  the  dam,  in  any 
part  of  it,  for  the  discharge  of  the  surplus  water; 
neither  does  it  pass  over  its  crest;  but  it  percolates 
through  the  thin  bank  of  earth  near  its  crest  in  nu- 
merous places  along  its  entire  length.  The  dams  of 
this  class  all  agree  in  this  respect.  In  the  most  of 
these, dams  the  rapidity  or  slowness  with  which  this 
surplus  is  discharged,  is  undoubtedly  regulated  by  the 
beavers,  otherwise  the  level  of  the  pond  would  con- 
tinually vary.  There  must  be  a  constant  tendency  to 
enlarge  the  orifices  through  which  the  water  passes, 
which,  if  left  to  itself,  would  in  due  time  draw  down 
the  pond,  and  expose  the  entrances  to  their  lodges  and 
burrows;  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  embankment  was 


94 


THE   AMERICAN   UEAVER. 


mado  inipenetriible,  the  wjxter  would  rise  and  flow 
over  it.s  crest,  to  its  waste  and  injury.  At  ordinary 
Htiiges  of  the  water  the  pond  is  maintained  at  a  \ini- 
form  level;  but  after  a  sudden  rise,  or  in  time  of 
freshet,  it  flows  over  the  summit.  The  structure  is 
better  able  to  bear  an  overflow  than  rents  through  its 
embankment.  Tliis  dam  was  rarely  if  ever  over- 
flowed, for  a  special  reason,  which  will  be  stated 
hereafter.  Those  upon  the  Carp,  however,  are  sub- 
merged with  every  considerable  rise  of  the  stream, 
which,  having  a  wide  drainage,  is  subject  to  sudden 
freshets.  I  have  seen  the  water  run  over  the  tops  of 
tJ^ese  dams  a  foot  deep.  After  the  flow  subsided,  the 
lents  were  speedily  repaired.  At  ordinary  stages  the 
surplus  water  passed  through  the  dams  by  percola- 
tion, straining  through  them  near  the  crest  as  though 
they  were  fine  basket-work.  I  have  visited  the 
Grass  Lake  dam  six  diflerent  years,  and  at  high  and 
low  stages  of  the  water  in  the  neighboring  streams, 
and  always  found  the  pond  at  the  Bame  level,  and 
full  to  the  crest  of  the  dam,  until  the  year  1865, 
when  it  was  lower  than  usual,  and  the  dam  itself 
exhibited  signs  of  neglect.  From  this  fact  it  seemed 
probable  that  after  centuries  of  use  and  maintenance 
by  unnumbered  generations  of  beavers,  this  interest- 
ing and  remarkable  structure  was  about  to  be  aban- 
doned by  its  natural  proprietors. 

At  the  time  the  photograph  was  taken,  the  water  of 
the  pond  stood  quite  near  the  summit  of  the  dam 
along  its  entire  length.  In  some  places  it  came  within 
one  or  two  inches,  while  in  others  it  stood  ujjon  it  and 
trickled  over.     The  crest  is  very  narrow  along  its 


BRAVER   DAMS. 


96 


whole  extent,  diiuiniHliin^r  from  a  few  iiu'lien  ut  its 
widest  exprtUMe  to  a  mere  line.  It  is  a  conspieuoiiH 
feature  of  heaver  dams  of  this  class  that  they  are  so 
jH'rfeetiy  constructed  as  to  hold  and  retain  water  until 
it  rises  to  their  verj  summit.  A  fine  sod,  eomiH»sed 
of  roots  of  grass  intermixed  with  loiim,  is  used  to 
finish  the  water  line  of  the  dam.  On  tnkini^  up  a 
handful  of  this  scmI,  freeinijf  it  from  earth  and  rinsing 
it  clean,  it  yielded  one-luilf  of  its  orijjinul  hulk  of 
vegetable  fibre,  mostly  fine  roots  and  tendrils,  still 
green  and  undecayed.  It  was  thus  made  evident 
that  it  had  been  quite  recently  laid. 

In  constructing  dams,  loose  stones  are  incor])orated, 
here  and  there,  for  down  weight,  and  to  give  sclidity 
to  the  structure.  We  found  stones  upon  this  dam 
which  would  weigh  from  one  to  six  pounds.  They 
are  most  frequently  discovered  where  the  dam  is  the 
lowest,  although  found  in  all  parts  of  the  work. 

No  one  standing  upon  this  dam,  and  observing  its 
fragile  character,  could  fail  to  perceive  that  its  main- 
tenance would  require  constant  supervision  and  per- 
petual labor.  The  tendency  to  increased  leakage 
from  the  effects  of  percolation,  and  to  a  settling  down 
of  the  dam,  as  its  materials  decayed  underneath  upon 
its  stick-work  half,  would  demand  unceasing  vigilance 
and  care  to  avert  the  consequences.  In  the  fall  of 
the  year  a  new  supply  of  materials  is  placed  upon  the 
lower  face  of  these  dams  to  compensate  this  waste 
from  decay.  They  use  for  this  purpose  the  cuttings  of 
the  previous  fall,  which  during  the  winter  have  been 
stripped  of  their  bark  for  food,  and  laid  aside  appar- 
ently for  this  object.    It  is  from  this  practice,  and  the 


,* 


? 


96 


THE    AMRRirAN    nRAVRK. 


manner  of  ropiiiring  their  damn,  that  thoy  aHMume,  in 
courno  of  tinii',  tlic  iii^hly  artintic  a|)iHMirance  u|Hm 
the  lower  Hlo|)e  which  the  engraving  dinphiyH.  The 
Htickn,  polcH,  and  hilletH  of  wood,  witen  hiid  upon  the 
face  of  the  dam,  impart  to  thin  Hh)pe  itH  regular  and 
Bymmetrical  form.  When  first  constnicted,  an  k'fore 
remarked,  and  when  at  their  lowest  stages,  they  are 
extremely  rude,  and  only  take  on  the  appearance  in 
which  they  are  usually  seen  after  they  have  heen 
maintained  for  a  long  series  of  years.  Fresh  beaver 
tracks  are  usually  seen  imprinted  upon  the  soft  earth 
on  the  crest  of  these  dams,  and  fresh  licaver  cuttings 
are  often  found  upon  their  lower  faces,  thus  showing 
that  they  are  in  the  constant  habit  of  traversing  and 
repairing  the  works.  There  is  generally  no  difficulty 
in  walking  over  the  larger  dams  with  dry  feet,  by 
keeping  on  the  lower  slope,  except  near  the  ends, 
where  the  structure  is  not  usually  strong  enough  to 
bear  up  the  weight  of  a  man.  Upon  the  sloping  face 
of  the  great  curve  of  Grass  Lake  Dam  twenty  men 
could  stand  together  without  making  any  impression 
upon  the  structure.  The  series  of  darns  on  the  Carp, 
shown  u{)on  the  map,  are  similar  to  this,  and  would 
avernge  about  three  feet  in  height.  While  fishing  in 
this  stream  for  brook  trout,  three  of  us  found  no  diffi- 
culty in  landing  from  our  boat  upon  their  lower  slopes, 
and  drawing  the  boat  over  without  injuring  them  in 
any  respect. 

The  following  measurements  will  indicate,  in  an- 
other manner,  the  size  and  proportion  of  parts  of  this 
great  structure,  as  well  as  convey  some  impression  of 
the  amount  of  solid  materials  employed  in  its  erection : 


/ 


BKAVFR    DAMS. 


97 


Lrnr/lh  of  Dam  meanuretl  on  the  Crent  Ltne. 

Prom  ^Inliiin  No.  1  to  Hlniion  No.  2  (Hoe  I'lnip  VIII.) :i'.t  fftt. 

•  •  "        "   2  "  "   3 -14    •• 

3         "  "  4 «2    "    10  In. 

•'  '•        "  4         "  "  f» M    " 

••  "        "   ft         '•  "   0 80    •• 

"  "        "   tl  ••  ••  7 "83    '• 

Total  Length 20i)  f«et  10  In. 

Other  Mea$urcmenl». 


No.  4. 

No.  4^ 

6  ft.  Vf 

1  ft. 

4  ft. 
6  ft. 

15  ft. 

11  ft.  9'^ 

8  ft. 

3  ft.  6'' 

No.  .1. 

NO.X 

Heiglit  (if  Htruciiirp  from  ground, 
or  bnne  lino 

fl  ft.  2" 
1ft. 

:>  ft. 

(5  ft. 
13  ft. 
18  ft. 

7  ft.  6'' 

4  ft. 

8  ft.  d" 

3  ft.  »" 
12  ft. 
Oft. 

7  ft. 

8  ft. 

2  ft.  V 

2  ft. 
Oft. 
6  ft. 
4  ft. 

2  ft. 

Depth  of  water  in  Bmall  pond  be- 
low dnm 

Differcn<'e  of  lerel  of  wtitcr  above 
and  below  datn 

Height  of  walor  above  bane  lino.. 
Approximate  width  of  baxe,  tranii- 
Terxe  neotionsi , 

Length  of  slope  of  poles,  lower 
fnoe  of  dnm • 

Length  of  tilope  of  water  face  of 
(lam 

Depth  0 '  water  in  pond  at  the  end 
of  slone 

The  following  figure  represents  a  transverse  section 
of  the  dam  at  the  head  of  the  great  curve,  Station  No. 
4,  and  distinguishes  the  part  which  is  a  solid  embank- 
ment from  that  which  consists  of  sticks  and  poles  free 
from  earth. 


Fio.  8. 


.^.A 


FoU  V.  ititk  wane         BASE  18  Ft.      SeUd  Bark 
Transverse  section. 

A  computation  made  from  the  preceding,  and  some 
additional  measurements,  shows  that  this  dam  con- 

7 


1. 1 


98 


THE  AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


tains  upwards  of  seven  thousand  cubic  feet  of  solid 
materials,  all  of  which  were  transported  and  wrought 
into  this  structure  by  its  industrious  and  ingenious 
architects. 

The  photograph  of  this  dam,  from  which  the  en- 
graving was  made,  was  taken  by  Mr.  James  A.  Jenney 
in  August,  1861,  upon  four  plates,  each  eight  by  ten 
inches  in  dimensions;  and  from  one  position,  in  order 
to  show  the  dam,  the  pond,  and  the  background  in 
one  symmetrical  picture.  As  a  preparatory  measure, 
the  trees,  for  fifty  feet  immediately  below  the  dam, 
were  cut  down  and  removed,  the  under-brush  was 
cleared,  and  the  weeds  and  grass,,  which  were  growing 
through  the  dam,  were  pulled  out,  that  the  work 
might  be  shown  free  from  all  obstructions.  A  scaffold 
for  the  instrument  was  then  erected  in  front  of  the 
great  curve,  about  sixty  feet  distant  from  it,  and 
twelve  feet  high.  It  was  my  first  intention  to  have 
the  dam  photographed  in  four  sections,  with  the  in- 
strument placed  immediately  in  front  of  each,  thereby 
sacrificing  the  background  in  order  to  show  the  rela- 
tive size  of  all  the  parts  of  the  dam.  The  first  two 
plates  were  taken  on  tins  plan.  But  the  other  method 
was  finally  substituted  for  the  reason  that  it  would 
show  tlio  central  portion  of  the  dam  perfectly,  while 
the  imperfect  and  reduced  appearance  of  the  re- 
mainder would,  it  was  believed,  be  more  than  com- 
pensated by  the  completeness  of  the  representation  as 
a  whole.  These  photographs,  when  adjusted  together, 
make  a  picture  thirty-six  inches  in  length  by  seven  in 
width,  and,  in  all  respects,  faithfully  and  strikingly 
reproduce  the  original  in  miniature  form.  I  esteemed 
it,  at  the  time,  peculiarly  fortunate  that  I  was  able  to 


BEAVER   DAMS. 


99 


secure  an  exact  representation  of  this  great  structure 
while  it  was  in  a  perfect  state,  although  not  then  as 
well  assured,  as  at  present,  that  it  is  not  surpassed  in 
magnitude  by  any  other  beaver  dam  in  North  America. 

Two  adjuncts  of  this  dam  remain  to  be  noticed. 
Of  these,  the  first  is  a  remarkable  effort  of  engineering 
skill,  if  from  the  end  it  subserves  we  are  at  liberty  to 
infer  an  intention  on  the  part  of  the  beaver  to  produce 
that  end.  It  is  a  second  dam,  in  two  sections,  each 
twenty-five  feet  long  and  two  feet  high,  constructed 
across  the  thread  of  t^  ;  stream,  and  about  one  hun- 
dred feet  below  the  great  curve.  It  is  shown  in 
Plate  VIII.  At  this  point,  the  waters  that  flowed 
through  the  dam  above  have  again  become  collected 
into  a  small  running  stream.  This  low  dam  forms  a 
shallow  pond,  in  itself  of  no  apparent  use  for  beaver 
occupation,  but  yet  subserving  the  important  purpose 
of  setting  back  water  to  the  depth  of  twelve  or  fifteen 
inches  in  the  great  curve.  At  this  point  the  pressure 
of  the  water  in  the  pond  against  the  dam  is  the 
greatest,  because  here  the  bed  of  the  channel  is  the 
lowest,  and  the  structure  the  highest;  and  the  small 
dam,  by  maintaining  the  water  a  foot  deep  below  the 
great  dam,  diminishes,  to  this  extent,  the  difference 
in  level  above  and  below;  and  neutralizes,  to  the 
same  extent,  the  pressure  of  the  water  in  the  pond 
above  against  the  main  structure.  Whether  the  lower 
dam  was  constructed  with  this  motive,  and  for  this 
object,  or  is  explainable  on  some  other  hypothesis,  I 
shall  not  venture  an  opinion.  I  have  found  the  same 
precise  work  repeated  below  other  large  dams. 

The  second  is  also  a  dam  which  is  constructed 
across  the  outlet  of  Lake  Diamond  at  the  place  where 


.'■\  r'^ 


LM 


100 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


it  issues  from  the  lake.  It  performs  the  important 
office  of  protecting  the  great  dam  below  from  the 
effects  of  a  sudden  rise  of  the  waters  of  the  lake.  In 
construction,  it  is  in  all  respects  like  the  Grass  Lake 
dam.  It  is  ninety-three  feet  long,  and  two  and  a  half 
feet  high  at  the  centre,  from  which  it  diminishes 
gradually  to  the  ends.  I  first  saw  it  in  1860,  and 
last  in  1866,  when  it  was  still  in  good  condition.  A 
dam  at  this  point  is  apparently  of  no  conceivable  use 
to  improve  the  lake  for  beaver  occupation.  It  has 
one  feature,  also,  in  which  it  differs  from  other  dams 
excejot  those  upon  lake  outlets:  and  that  consists  in 
its  elevation,  at  all  points,  of  about  two  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  lake  at  ordinary  stages  of  the  w  iter.  In 
all  other  dams  except  those  upon  lake  outlets,  and  in 
most  of  the  latter,  the  water  stands  quite  near  their 
crests,  while  in  the  one  under  consideratioji  it  stood 
about  two  feet  below  it.  This  fact  suggests,  at  least, 
the  inference,  although  it  may  have  but  little  of  prob- 
ability to  sustain  it,  that  it  was  constructed  with 
special  reference  to  sudden  rises  of  the  lake  in  times 
of  freshet,  and  that  it  was  designed  to  hold  this  sur- 
plus water  until  it  could  be  gradually  discharged 
through  the  dam  into  the  great  pond  below.  It 
would,  at  least,  subserve  this  purpose  very  efficiently, 
and  thus  protect  the  dam  below  it  from  the  effects  of 
freshets.  To  ascribe  the  origin  of  this  dam  to  such 
motives  of  intelligence  is  to  invest  this  animal  with 
a  higher  degree  of  sagacity  than  we  have  probable 
reason  to  concede  to  him;  and  yet  it  is  proper  to 
mention  the  relation  in  which  these  dams  stand  to 
each  other,  whether  that  relation  is  regarded  as  acci- 
dental or  intentional. 


i< 


BEAVER  DAMS. 


101 


I  have  now  given  a  full  as  well  as  somewhat  de- 
tailed description  of  a  beaver  dam  of  the  ordinary 
kind  constructed  by  this  architectural  mute.  This 
explanation,  and  the  engravings  together,  will  render 
unnecessary  a  special  description  of  other  dams  of  the 
same  class.  In  the  remaining  dams  noticed,  I  shall 
limit  the  description  to  the  special  features  or  difter- 
ences  by  which  they  are  distinguished,  giving,  at  the 
same  time,  ground  plans  and  measurements  for  the 
purpose  of  comparison. 

New  dams  are  occasionally  commenced,  and  old 
ones,  .previously  abandoned  for  some  cause,  are  re- 
paired and  reoccupied,  in  beaver  districts  which  are 
undisturbed  except  by  trappers.  The  increase  or 
decrease  of  beavers  in  numbers,  influences,  to  some 
extent,  their  movements  in  these  respects  The  sea- 
son preferred  for  this  work  is  during  the  months  of 
September  and  October,  after  the  strong  currents  have 
run  out  of  the  streams,  and  they  have  subsided  to 
their  lowest  levels.  It  is  also  the  period  during  which 
they  cut  and  store  their  winter  wood,  with  the  im- 
mersion and  safety  of  which  tlieir  ponds  are  intimately 
connected.  Hence  we  find  that  the  active  season  for 
beaver  work  is  late  in  the  fall;  and  that  it  is  per- 
formed with  reference  to  the  approaching  winter,  of 
which  they  are  not  unmindful.  These  several  subjects 
will  be  elsewhere  considered. 

For  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  how  beaver  dams 
are  commenced,  and  especially  to  find  whether  an 
attempt  is  made  to  insert  any  portion  of  the  materials 
in  the  ground,  as  a  means  of  holding  them  i:v  their 
places,  I  have  taken  up  to  the  bottom  both  old  and 
new  beaver  dams,  and  examined,  with  some  care,  the 


."A 


102 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


t  i 


disposition  and  arrangement  of  the  materials.  The 
result  demonstrated  that  neither  stakes,  brush,  nor 
poles  were  inserted  or  imbedded  in  the  ground,  but 
on  the  contrary  that  they  were  laid  flatwise  upon  the 
bed  of  the  channel,  and  held  down  with  mud  and 
earth  carried  in  and  deposited  upon  them.  A  new 
dam  was  commenced  a  year  ago  on  the  main  branch 
of  the  Carp,  close  beside  the  track  of  the  Marquette 
and  Ontonagon  Railroad,  about  twenty-three  miles  out 
from  Marquette.  At  the  point  selected  for  the  dam 
the  Carp  is  a  mere  brook,  and  the  railroad  embank- 
ment, which  pa8.ses  parallel  with,  and  a  few  feet  from 
it,  seemed  to  the  observant  eye  of  the  beaver  to  aiford 
some  advantages  as  a  b.arrier,  upon  one  side,  to  their 
proposed  pond ;  and  notwithstanding  the  daily  passage 
of  trains  over  the  road,  they  commenced  the  dam,  and 
raised  it  about  a  foot  high  across  the  channel  of  the 
stream.  A  conflict  of  interests  tjius  arose  between 
the  beavers,  on  the  one  hand,  and  one  of  the  chief 
commercial  enterprises  of  the  country,  on  the  other. 
The  track-master,  fearing  the  effects  of  an  accumula- 
tion of  water  against  the  railroad  embankment,  cut 
the  dam  through  the  centre,  and  thus  lowered  the 
water  to  its  original  level.  As  this  was  no  new  ex- 
perience to  the  beavers,  who  were  accustomed  to  such 
rents,  they  immediately  repaired  the  breach.  For  ten 
or  fifteen  times  it  was  cut  through,  and  as  often 
repaired  before  the  beavers  finally  desisted  from  their 
proposed  work.  On  taking  up  the  remains  of  this 
dam  the  present  season  (1866),  I  found  that  it  was 
commenced  with  brush  and  poles,  with  the  bark  on, 
from  ten  to  twelve  feet  in  length,  and  that  they  were 
arranged  horizontally  upon  the  bed  of  the  channel, 


BEAVER   DAMS. 


103 


and  lengthwise  with  the  flow  of  the  stream  instead  or 
transversely.  In  general  the  large  ends  of  the  poles, 
and  of  the  limbs  with  their  branches  attached,  were 
up  stream,  which  of  itself  would  tend  to  strengthen 
their  hold  upon  the  bottom.  Upon  these  materials, 
which  were  compactly  arranged,  earth  and  mud,  in 
small  quantities  only,  were  accumulated  for  down 
weight,  and  to  fill  up  the  intervening  spaces;  but  it 
was  confined  to  the  central  and  upper  porti'jns.  On 
the  upper  margin,  which  was  to  form  the  watar  face 
of  the  dam,  small  sticks  were  used,  together  with 
loam,  intermixed  with  fine  roots,  for  the  purpose  of 
arresting  the  flow  of  the  water  through  the  rudely- 
arranged  materials  of  the  dam.  At  this  stage  it  was 
extremely  rude,  and  devoid  of  those  striking  charac- 
teristics which  these  dams  assume  with  age. 

The  manner  in  which  they  repair  their  dams  is 
both  curious  and  interesting.  It  will  be  suflicient 
here  to  state  that  ordinary  repairs  are  made,  when- 
ever they  seem  to  be  required,  by  each  beaver  acting 
independently,  and  without  any  concert  with  his 
mates.  In  case  of  a  breach  in  the  structure,  several 
of  them  have  been  seen  working  together  for  its 
restoration.  They  usually  go  down  to  the  dam  nightly, 
one  after  the  other,  and  as  they  pass  along  its  margin, 
each,  upon  his  own  motion,  does  such  work  upon  it  as 
he  chooses  to  perform.  In  another  connection  some 
facts  will  be  stated  upon  this  subject. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

BEAVER   DAMS — (CONTINUED). 

Solid-bank  Diiros — Places  where  constructed — No  Dams  in  deep  Water — 
Where  impossible,  the  Beavers  inhabit  River  Banks — Description  of  Solid- 
bank  Dam — Opening  for  Surplus  Water — Pond  confined  to  River  Banks — 
Similar  Dam  with  Hedge — Fallen-tree  Dam — Use  of  Tree  accidental — 
Spring  Rill  Dam — Series  of  Dnms  on  the  Carp — Dams  in  a  Gorge — Lake 
Outlet  Dams — High  Dam — Long  Dam — Description  of  same — Manner  of 
Photographing  same — Dams  in  other  Districts  of  North  America — Petri- 
fied r«aver  Dams  in  Montana. 

The  solid-bank  dam,  which  we  are  next  to  consider, 
although  constructed  upon  the  same  principles  as  the 
kind  previously  described,  presents  a  very  different 
appearance.  This  difference  of  external  form  is  the 
result  of  the  altered  conditions  under  which  it  is 
erected,  occasioned  by  a  gradual  transformation  in  the 
character  of  each  particular  stream  in  its  descending 
course.  In  the  capacity  thereby  displayed  of  adapt- 
ing their  works  to  the  ever-varying  circumstances  in 
which  they  find  themselves  placed,  instead  of  follow- 
ing blindly  an  invariable  type,  some  evidence  of  the 
possession,  on  their  part,  of  a  free  intelligence,  is  un- 
doubtedly furnished. 

After  a  stream  has  emerged  from  its  sources  in  the 
hills,  and  acquired  volume  with  its  onward  flow,  it 
soon  begins  to  develop  banks  as  well  as  a  broader 
channel,  and  these  banks  assume  a  vertical  form  in 
the  level  areas  where  the  soil  is  alluvial.  Such  are 
the  changes  which  occur  on  the  Ely  Branch  of  the 

(104) 


BEAVER   DAMS. 


105 


igence,  is  un- 


Esconauba  after  it  has  passed  dam  No.  13,  and  on 
Carp  River  after  passing  dam  No.  39.  The  channel 
of  the  first-named  stream  will  then  average  seventy 
feet  in  width,  with  vertical  banks  from  three  to  four 
feet  higb^  and  with  a  depth  of  water  of  about  twenty 
inches  at  its  lowest  stages,  and  in  its  shallowest  parts. 
Through  the  level  areas  it  moves  also  with  a  sluggish 
current.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  in  building 
a  dam  across  such  a  channel,  it  must  be  done  in  deep 
water  as  compared  with  brooks;  and  further  than  this, 
that  the  difficulty  of  construction  increases  with  the 
increase  of  the  depth  of  the  water,  until  it  finally 
becomes  insurmountable.  For  this  reason  there  are 
no  dams  on  the  Carp  below  No.  50,  and  none  on  the 
Esconauba  below  the  junction  of  the  Ely  Branch 
with  the  main  stream.  There  is  no  instance  within 
the  area  represented  by  the  map  where  a  dam  has 
been  constructed  across  a  stream  having  a  greater 
depth  than  two  feet  at  the  site  of  the  structure  when 
the  water  is  at  its  lowest  level.  It  thus  becomes 
apparent  that  beaver  dams  are  necessarily  confined 
to  the  sources  of  the  principal  rivers  and  to  the  small 
tributaries  which  flow  into  them  along  their  courses; 
and  that  some  change  in  the  character  of  the  dams 
would  be  rendered  necessary  by  the  transformations 
which  occur  with  their  increase  in  size  or  depth. 
Where  beavers  inhabit  rivers  too  large  for  dams, 
they  burrow  in  their  banks,  for  which  reason  they 
are  distinguished  by  the  trappers  under  the  name  of 
bank  beavers.  These  general  considerations  will  serve 
to  explain  the  manner  in  which  given  districts  are 
occupied  by  beavers;  the  circumstances  which  render 
some  localities  more  favorable  than  others ;  and  the 


-I 


100 


THE   AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


influence  of  topographical  features  upon  the  character 
of  their  dam». 

The  first  solid-bank  dam  to  be  described  (Plate  IX.) 
is  in  the  Ely  Branch  of  the  Esconauba  River,  and  is 
marited  as  No.  14  on  the  map.  When  photographed  it 
was  not  in  a  perfect  condition.  It  had  been  cut  through 
in  two  places  by  the  miners,  some  three  years  before, 
to  draw  off  the  water  from  the  beaver  meadows  pre- 
paratory to  cutting  the  grass  from  these  meadows  for 
hay,  and  had  thus  been  exposed  to  waste.  The 
water  in  the  pond  then  stood  but  a  few  inches  above 
its  natural  level,  leaving  the  dam  mostly  uncovered 
on  both  slopes,  and  its  lower  face  littered  with  loose 
materials  from  these  breaches.  It  exhibited  the  re- 
mains only  of  what  originally  was  one  of  the  most 
perfect  structures  of  its  kind.  Upon  the  right  bank 
of  the  stream  (left  side  of  the  engraving)  was  the 
lodge,  with  its  heap  of  brush,  for  the  lodgment  of  cut- 
tings, sunk  in  the  pond  immediately  in  front,  and  rising 
above  the  surfiice;  and  on  the  opposite  side  was  a 
beaver  meadow  of  considerable  extent,  back  of  which 
was  the  forest. 

The  dam  is  constructed  at  a  bend  in  the  stream, 
where  the  channel  is  about  seventy  feet  wide  and  of 
uniform  depth,  and  where  the  bottom  is  smooth  and 
hard.  It  is  substantially  a  solid  embankment,  and  is 
thrown  across  the  stream  diagonally,  but  in  a  straight 
line,  from  bank  to  bank.  Between  these  banks  it  is 
seventy-five  feet  long.  On  the  right  side  it  is  built 
into  the  bank,  and,  rising  above  it,  is  extended,  as  a 
low  dam,  for  thirty  feei  beyond,  and  on  the  left  for 
fifteen  feet,  thus  giving  to  the  structure  a  total  length 
of  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet.    Between  the  banks, 


aracter 


> 


C/3 

o 


> 


I 


It 


HKAVKR    DAMS. 


107 


tho  dnm  wrh  of  uniform  width  and  lii'ight,  an  i\\v  Ih>(1 
of  the  cliaiim.'!  wan  levfl.  At  the  Imse  of  tlio  .Mtriic- 
ture  its  uvera<^o  widtli  tranHViTMoiy  wuh  .^ixtt'i-n  foet, 
diminishing  to  twelve  feet  at  tho  original  Hurface  level 
of  the  stream,  whioh  here  was  twenty  inehes  deep, 
and  to  four  feet  in  width  at  the  height  of  three  feet 
from  the  bottom.  Above  thia  last  level  the  erest  was 
rounded  up  about  sixteen  inches  higher,  where  it  was 
still  two  feet  wide,  the  embankment  having  a  total 
height  of  four  feet  and  four  inches. 

In  constructing  dams  where  the  water  is  of  such 
depth,  larger  quantities  of  brush  and  [mles  are  used 
than  in  dams  of  the  other  class,  and  it  is  also  neces- 
sary to  use  larger  amounts  of  earth.  The  brush  is 
required  to  hold  the  earth  where  it  is  placed,  which 
otherwise  would  l)e  dissolved  and  How  away  with  the 
current:  and  the  earth  in  turn  anchors  the  brush,  and 
when  packed  around  it,  the  two  together  form  a  firm 
and  solid  embankment.  The  principle  on  which 
brush  and  sticks  are  used  for  their  binding  properties 
is  the  same  which  led  to  the  use  of  straw  in  nmd 
brick.  Neither,  separately,  would  answer  the  end 
designed.  So  much  earth  was  used  upon  this  dam 
that  the  brush  and  poles  upon  the  lower  lace,  as  well 
as  on  the  water  slope,  were  buried  and  concealed  from 
view,  except  the  ends  which  projected  in  different 
places.  So  firm  and  solid  had  the  embankment  be- 
come, and  such  was  its  breadth  near  the  summit,  that 
a  horse  and  wagon  might  have  been  driven  across  the 
river  upon  it  in  safety,  but  for  the  opening  on  the 
left  side  for  the  passage  of  the  surplus  water.  The 
only  diflferences,  therefore,  in  the  two  species  of  dams, 
consist  in  the  filling  in  of  the  interstices  on  the  lower 


>, 


!  I 


I 


108 


THE   AMERICAN    HEAVER. 


I  ! 


fiu'o  with  mud  luid  oarth,  which  turrih  it  into  n  Holid 
einhunktiu'tit  on  both  h1u|>c'h,  and  throughout  itH  whole 
extent,  and  in  the  H|>fcial  motiuMl  renurtod  to  for  dis- 
charging the  surplus  water,  which  remains  to  be 
noticed. 

From  the  solidity  of  these  dams  the  water  is  not 
able  to  percolate  through  them  as  before  stated, 
neith(!r  was  it  allowed  at  ordinary  stages  to  pass  over 
their  summits.  A  regular  opening  is  left  in  the  crest 
of  the  dam,  usually  in  the  line  of  the  thread  of  the 
current,  several  inches  lower  than  its  summit.  On 
the  water  face  above  the  opening  is  found  the  ordi- 
nary embankment,  while  on  the  lower  face  it  is  con- 
structed of  interlaced  stick-work  precisely  in  the  form 
of  the  dam  first  described.  This  opening  is  usually 
from  three  to  six  feet  long,  so  that  the  water  passes 
over  its  top,  and  also  through  this  narrow  portion  of 
the  structure  by  percolation.  It  is  e\  ideiit,  fi-om  the 
existence  and  peculiar  character  of  these  openings, 
that  the  beavers  understood  the  injurious  effects  of 
allowing  the  surplus  water  to  flow  over  the  crests  of 
their  solid-bank  dams,  and  also  the  importance  of 
regulating  the  amount  of  the  discharge,  which  could 
be  effected  by  the  enlargement  or  contraction  of  the 
openings.  The  dam  was  cut  through  at  this  point, 
which  nearly  obliterated  this  feature  of  the  structure. 
This  species  of  dam,  when  completed,  might  possess 
some  advantages  over  the  other  in  the  matter  of  re- 
quiring less  frequent  repairs,  and  yet  with  each  freshet 
it  would  suffer  more  or  less  of  waste. 

The  pond  above  is  narrow,  it  being  confined  with- 
in the  natural  banks  of  the  stream,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  shallow  water  upon  portions  of  the  beaver 


\ 


BEAVER   DAMS. 


109 


meadows ;  but  it  was,  nevertheless,  spacious  from  its 
length  and  from  the  depth  of  the  water,  since  the 
dam  set  back  the  pond  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile, 
and  was  in  places  where  depressions  existed  in  the 
bed  of  the  river,  ten  or  twelve  feet  deep.  A  short 
distance  above  the  lodge  there  is. a  beaver  canal  of 
considerable  size  running  back  to  the  hard  wood 
lands.  The  beaver  lodge  belonging  to  this  dam  is 
seen  upon  the  bank  on  the  left  side  of  the  engraving, 
with  a  brush  pile  in  the  water  immediately  in  front, 
the  uses  of  which  will  be  hereafter  explained. 

There  are  four  dams  below  this  shown  on  the  map 
of  the  same  general  character  and  size,  except  that 
they  were  shorter.  They  were  so  near  each  other 
that  each  dam  set  back  the  water  to  the  one  imme- 
diately above.  When  I  first  saw  them  in  1860,  they 
had  been  cut  through  by  the  miners,  and  were  de- 
serted, and  when  I  last  saw  them,  two  years  later,  they 
were  wasting  away. 

Upon  small  brooks,  having  defined  banks  and  some 
depth  of  water,  dams  of  this  description  are  occasion- 
ally found.  The  one  represented  in  the  engraving 
(Plate  X.),  and  which  is  No.  49  on  the  map,  is  situated 
upon  an  affluent  of  the  Carp,  a  short  distance  above  the 
boat  station.  It  is  fifty-five  feet  long,  extending  upon 
the  bank  on  either  side,  and  nearly  three  feet  high. 
The  embankment  was  several  feet  wide  and  composed 
of  earth,  the  brush  and  poles  having  decayed  and  dis- 
appeared externally.  Upon  its  top  and  lower  face 
alder  bushes  had  germinated  and  produced  a  hedge  so 
dense  that  it  was  extremely  difficult  to  penetrate  it 
sufficiently  for  the  inspection  and  measurement  of 
the  work.     Near  the  north  end  was  the  usual  open- 


r 


i 


no 


THE   AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


ing,  about  six  feet  wide,  where  the  lower  face  was 
constructed  of  interlaced  sticks,  while  the  water  face 
was  banked  in  with  earth.  In  the  engraving,  which 
was  made  from  a  drawing,  the  hedge  is  removed  for 
the  purpose  of  showing  the  embankment.  The  fall  of 
water  which  passed  over  the  crest  of  the  dam  at  the 
opening,  was  about  a  foot  and  a  half.  I  was  first 
drawn  to  the  place  by  the  sound  of  the  Mling  water 
while  passing  by  on  the  trail  at  some  distance. 

This  dam  realizes  the  earliest  current  descriptions 
of  these  works  by  Buffon  and  other  writeis,  particu- 
larly its  opening  for  the  surplus  water,  and  the  hedge 
growing  upon  its  summit.  In  the  Lake  Superior  re- 
gion, and  upon  the  head  waters  of  the  Yellowstone 
and  the  i»r'ssouri,  they  are  comparatively  rare.  All 
the  large  dams  are  of  the  other  kind.  In  some  in- 
stances both  forms  are  found  in  the  same  dam,  as  will 
hereafter  be  shown. 

It  was  another  conspicuous  feature  of  beaver  dams, 
according  to  the  early  descriptions,  that  the  trunk  of 
a  tree,  cut  down  for  the  purpose,  often  served  as  the 
foundation  of  the  structure.  After  selecting  a  proper 
site,  their  first  act,  as  a  general  rule,  was  said  to  be 
the  felling  of  a  tree  across  the  channel  upon  which 
the  work  was  to  be  constructed.  There  is  one  dam, 
and  but  one,  within  the  area  of  the  map  (No.  9), 
which  has  incorporated  within  it  the  trunk  of  a  fallen 
tree.  Except  for  this  circumstance  it  would  not  de- 
serve a  special  notice. 

The  tree  in  question  (Plate  XI.),  which  was  a  pine, 
three  and  a  half  feet  in  diameter,  had  fallen  from  its 
own  decay.  For  aught  that  appeared,  it  might  have 
fallen  upon  a  dam  previously  constructed,  and  become 


FALLEN  TRtLE   DAM. 


BEAVER   DAMS. 


Ill 


subsequently  incorporated  within  it;  or  it  may  have 
been  seized  upon  after  its  fall  as  a  convenient  part  of 
a  new  structure.  At  all  events,  the  most  singular  fact 
connected  with  it  is,  that  the  dam  was  constructed 
below  the  log,  so  far  as  sticks  and  poles  are  used,  while 
it  was  banked  in  above  the  tnmk  with  earth.  The  log 
part  of  the  dam  was  twenty-five  feet  long,  and  the  re- 
mainder sixty-one  feet,  with  a  vertical  height  at  the 
centre  of  four  feet  eight  inches,  and  a  slope  of  pole 
and  stick  work  on  tlie  lower  face  of  nine  feet.  From 
the  nature  of  the  positions  in  which  beaver  dams  are 
usually  constructed,  fallen  trees,  if  cut  down  on  pur- 
pose, could  be  of  but  little  advantage;  and  it  is  there- 
fore probable  that  the  use  of  trunks  of  trees  in  build- 
ing dams  was  purely  accidental,  as  in  the  present 
case. 

In  addition  to  the  two  species  of  beaver  dams  which 
have  been  described,  there  are  varieties  of  each  that 
possess  special  characteristics  resulting  from  the  na- 
ture of  the  localities  in  which  they  are  erected.  Some 
notice  of  these  dams  is  necessary  to  complete  the  ex- 
position of  these  structures. 

The  beavers  do  not  restrict  themselves  to  the  prin- 
cipal streams,  nor  yet  to  the  small  brooks,  but  where- 
ever  they  find  flowing  water,  however  small  in  quan- 
tity, they  avail  themselves  of  it  if  the  place  affords 
the  other  requisite  advantages.  There  is  one  dam, 
not  shown  upon  the  map,  situated  at  a  short  distance 
from  a  spring  in  the  midst  of  a  dense  forest,  and  upon 
low  and  swampy  ground,  which  may  be  called  a 
spring  rill  dam.  As  live  trees  were  standing  in  the 
pond,  it  was  evidently  of  recent  construction.  A  de- 
pression in  the  ground  formed  a  basin  for  the  water 


112 


THE   AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


on  all  sides,  except  where  the  dam  brought  up  the 
deficiency;  and  a  small  spring  supplied  the  water  in 
quantities  barely  sufficient  to  change  the  waters  of 
the  pond.  To  prevent  the  escape  of  the  water,  the 
dam  was  extended  until  it  reached  the  length  of  one 
hundred  and  thirty-three  feet;  after  Which  the  surplus 
was  discharged  through  it  by  percolation.  The  lower 
face  of  the  dam  was  constructed  of  sticks  and  twigs 
interlaced,  and  the  water  slope  was  an  embankment 
of  earth.  Its  height  varied  from  one  foot  to  two 
feet  and  a  half,  with  a  difference  of  level  in  the  water 
above  and  below  the  dam  of  twenty  inches  at  the 
highest  part  of  the  structure.  The  pond  was  too 
small  to  afford  much  protection  to  its  occupants;  but 
this  deficiency  was  in  some  measure  compensated  by 
the  abundance  of  hard  wood  upon  its  margin,  and  by 
the  seclusion  afforded  by  the  density  of  the  surround- 
ing forest.  It  seemed  surprising,  nevertheless,  that  a 
beaver  family  should  take  up  their  residence  within 
an  eighth  of  a  mile  of  the  line  of  the  railroad,  on 
which  nine  trains  per  day  each  way  were  then  (1860) 
running.  With  their  reputed  shyness  and  caution 
they  were  evidently  waiting  for  some  overt  act  of 
hostile  interference  before  they  surrendered  their  hab- 
itation. The  snare  was  already  prepared  for  them, 
for  on  the  day  I  measured  the  dam  I  saw  two  traps, 
set  in  the  usual  manner,  in  the  pond.  Upon  the  im- 
pulse of  the  moment,  I  was  in  the  act  of  springing 
them,  to  save  the  inoffensive  mutes  from  their  peril, 
when  it  occurred  to  me  that  I  had  no  indefeasible 
ight  thus  to  interfere  with  the  vocation  of  the  trap- 
per; whereupon,  with  some  misgivings  that  I  had 
failed  to  perform  my  duty,  I  left  them  to  the  chances 


BEAVER    DAMS. 


113 


he 


of  the  trapper's  art.  Tliat  night  tlie  beaver,  whose 
skull  is  number  one  in  the  table  of  measurements  in 
the  Appendix,  was  caught,  and  this,  togetlier  with  the 
tail  and  feet,  were  went  to  me  the  following  day,  by 
the  successful  trapper,  who  proved  to  be  my  friend, 
Captain  Bridges,  the  trackinaster  of  the  railroad. 

On  Carp  River  there  is  a  series  of  thirteen  dams, 
one  above  the  other,  commencing  with  dam  No.  50  on 
the  map,  which  are  much  alike  in  size  and  external 
appearance,  and  may  therefore  be  referred  to  in  one 
group.  They  are  constructed  with  interlaced  stick- 
work  and  poles  on  their  lower  faces,  and  banked  .in 
with  earth  on  their  water  slopes  above,  and  discharge 
the  surplus  water,  at  ordinary  stages,  by  percolation. 
While  they  are  more  or  less  sinuous  in  their  crest 
lines  across  the  channel;  the  principal  curve,  at  the 
highest  part  of  each  structure,  is  usually  down  stream. 
These  dams  are  all  situated  within  a  distance  of  six 
miles,  measured  along  the  winding  channel  of  the 
stream,  the  borders  of  which  are  fringed,  here  and 
there,  with  beaver  meadows,  and  these  in  turn  are 
bordered  with  a  forest  of  tamarack  and  spruce.  I 
have  passed  over  them  in  a  fishing  boat  three  succes- 
sive seasons;  the  first  time  in  18G0,  and  when  they 
were  in  a  good  state  of  preservation,  with  their  ponds 
full,  and  still  occupied  by  beavers.  They  have  since 
then  been  deserted,  and  the  greater  part  of  them  have 
been  carried  away;  thus  showing  the  necessity  for 
constant  watchfulness  and  repairs  which  their  preser- 
vation entails  upon  their  builders.  These  dams  were 
from  forty  to  one  hundred  feet  in  length,  and  from 
three  to  five  feet  in  vertical  height  at  the  thread  of 
the  stream.     As  each  dam,  in  nearly  every  instance, 

8 


i    II 


i' 


11 

I  ! 


114 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER 


Hcts  buck  itH  pond  to  the  one  immediately  above,  in 
some  cases  two  and  even  three  feet  in  depth,  the  fall 
ol'  water  at  each  dam  ranged  from  one  to  three  feet. 
In  times  of  freshet  this  river,  although  but  a  small 
stream,  passes  a  considerable  volume  of  water.  I 
have  seen  it  ilow  over  the  crests  of  these  dams  a  foot 
deep,  which,  as  it  must  occur,  more  or  less,  with 
every  copious  rain,  subjects  these  structures  to  a  severe 
test.  Having  seen  them  both  before  and  after  such 
occurrences,  there  was  no  injury  observable  that  could 
not  be  speedily  repaired.  A  detailed  description  of 
these  darns,  with  their  respective  measurements,  is 
scarcely  necessary.  Those  higher  up,  on  the  same 
stream,  are  much  larger,  although  the  stream  itself 
diminishes  to  a  mere  brook.  One  of  these  in  particu- 
lar, on  account  of  its  great  length,  will  be  hereafter 
describe  1. 

Dams  are  often  found  upon  small  mountain  streams, 
and  in  the  narrovr  gorges  through  which  they  flow. 
They  are  constructed  in  the  same  manner  as  the  ordi- 
nary stick-dam,  but  are  deserving  of  notice  from  the 
nature  of  the  localities  in  which  they  are  erected. 
It  seems  to  be  no  hinderance  to  such  a  use  of  these 
rapidly  descending  streams  that  the  ponds  thus  formed 
must  be  extremely  short  and  narrow,  and  consequently 
incapable  of  aflFording  much  protection.  Many  of  the 
dams  in  the  declivities  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  chain, 
and  in  other  mountain  districts,  are  constructed  in 
situations  precisely  similar  to  that  of  the  series  about 
to  be  described,  and  for  this  reason  the  latter  are 
especially  interesting. 

To  find  an  illustration  of  dams  of  this  kind  it  is 
necessary  to  go  without  the  area  embraced  in  the 


SERIES  oi'  DAMS  in  .1  (JORGE 


i 


I      I 


!  I 


i 


UEAVKR    DAMS. 


115 


map.  About  six  niilcM  southciist  of  Lako  Miclii- 
gamc,  iind  two  miles  mmtli  of  tlio  Wiishiiii^ton  Mine, 
thia  aeries  of  Htructuies,  seven  in  number,  is  foiuitl, 
of  wliicli  a  representation  is  givi'U  in  Plat"  XII. 
They  commence  at  the  entrance  of  a  narrow  jrorge 
between  hills  of  considerable  elevation,  and  are  dis- 
tributed on  n  gradually  descending  line  «»f  one  iiun- 
dred  and  sixty  feet,  the  lowest  being  constructed  upon 
the  verge  of  a  nearly  precipitous  fall  of  al>out  one 
hundred  feet.  Their  size  and  height  are  sufliciently 
indicated  by  the  following  mea8urem<'nts,  which  were 
made  when  I  first  visited  them  in  1800,  and  for  the 
opportunity  of  doing  which  I  am  indebted  to  Mr. 
John  Armstrong,  one  of  the  officers  of  the  Washing- 
ton Mine: 


Length  of  dam 

Slope  of  lower  face 

Vertical  height 

Distance  between  it  and 
nest 


1«t 

Dam. 

2d 
Dam. 

3<1 
Diiiii. 

4tll 
Dani. 

Sth 
Dam. 

fith 
Uuiii. 

7tli 
bniu. 

Ft.  In. 

Fl.  In. 

Ft.  In. 

Ft. 

Fl.  In. 

«. 

«. 

91) 

60 

8 

20 

17 

12 

<) 

13 

0     9 

4 

8 

5 

3 

3 

5    6 

8    9 

2    0 

4 

2  10 

1 

•> 

GO 

23 

15 

30 

12 

10 

10  to  falls. 

The  second  and  third  measurements  given  were 
from  the  highest  part  of  each  structure  respectively. 
Taken  together,  these  dams  are  quite  remarkable. 
The  upper  one,  which  is  large  throughout  its  entire 
extent,  forms  a  pond  covering  about  ten  acres  of  land. 
A  dense  forest  of  hard  wood  overspreads  the  sur- 
rounding hills,  on  the  slopes  of  which  a  beaver-slide 
down  into  the  pond  is  occasionally  seen.  At  the 
upper  end  of  the  valley  there  is  a  beaver  canal  cut 
through  the  low  ground  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in 


Ill) 


TUB   AMERICAN    IJEAVEH. 


li'iiurtli.  MiKiii  till!  iniir^in  of  wliicli  the  troe  cuttii)g8 
were  iiiiiiicioiis.  Kacli  of  tho  lowor  (Imiis  lias  a  Hinall 
and  narrow  poiuJ,  but  too  incunHidcrahli'  in  nize  to 
ttlford  nuicli  protection,  Hinco  t'.io  bimkH,  from  tlioir 
rocky  character,  were  unfavor'iblc  for  burrowH.  Tlie 
volnnu'  of  the  stream  was  beiow  that  of  the  Hmallc8t 
brookn,  bnt,  after  rains,  it  sends  down,  undoubtedly, 
an  abundance  of  water.  In  each  case  tlie  da.n  was 
extended  from  one  side  of  the  gorge  to  the  other,  and 
constructed  of  stick-work  on  the  lower  face,  and  earth 
embankment  on  the  upper,  in  the  ordinary  form.  It 
is  dillicult  to  understand  the  uses  of  any  of  these 
dams,  except  the  upper  one,  which  sustains  the  main 
[)ond;  but  we  are  not  at  liberty  to  suppose  that  all 
this  lal)or  would  have  been  performed  without  some 
adequate  object.  A  tame  beaver  shows  an  irresistible 
propensity  to  dam  up  flowing  water, — a  propensity 
which  seizes  him  even  when  he  sees  water  running  in 
rills  in  a  yard,  after  a  copious  shower.  Whether  these 
apparently  unnecessary  dams  owe  their  origin  to  some 
such  unregulated  fancy,  I  leave  as  a  problem  to  such 
as  adopt  the  theory  of  the  fettered  intelligence  of  the 
mutes.  These  dams  show  an  aggregate  descent  in 
the  bed  of  the  stream  of  about  twenty-two  feet  in  one 
hundred  and  sixty;  and  are  found  to  stand  in  definite 
relations  to  each  other. 

In  the  mountain  districts,  and  in  the  high  lands 
which  are  broken  up  into  ranges  of  hills,  small  lakes 
are  usually  numerous.  They  are  also  favorite  resorts 
of  beavers,  who  inhabit  them  not  less  readily  than 
the  flowing  streams.  There  are  several  such  lakes 
within  the  area  embraced  by  the  map,  and  they  form 
the  most  attractive  features  in  the  landscape.     Em- 


<i  1 


BE  AVER    DAMS. 


117 


iKmoincd  in  tiic  midsl  of  hills  still  niitiitlfd  witli  tli«' 
j)riinitiv«'  luri'st,  ami  rclN'ctin;^,  in  the  jmrc  atmos- 
phere of  this  el'.'Viik'tl  li'^ion,  the  hrilliiint  Miiishiiie 
Iroiii  their  j:;littt'riiij;  luces,  lliey  enliven  the  solitude 
of  this  wilderness  with  their  cheerful  Jispect,  iiH  well 
as  hreuk  up  hy  their  presence  its  otherwise  boundless 
spread. 

Tlie  outlets  of  nearly  ull  of  these  lakes  are  oIh 
structed  with  dams,  the  most  of  which  are  without 
any  apparent  necessity,  unlesi^  by  means  of  them 
thev  are  enabled  to  hold  the  lakes  at  a  higher  and 
more  uniform  level.  The  first  of  these  which  will  be 
noticed  is  upon  the  outlet  of  Lake  Mary,  it  is  rep- 
resented as  No.  5  upon  the  map.  Wliile  it  i;^  of  mod- 
erate dimensions,  being  seventy  feet  long,  with  an 
average  height  of  two  and  a  lialf  feet,  it  was  [)trculiar 
in  ♦his,  that  for  a  considerable  portion  of  its  length  on 
either  end  it  ia  a  solid-bank  dam,  and  !»<  ^tick-dam  in 
the  centre  across  the  original  channel  of  the  outlet. 
On  the  southwest  end  the  embankment  was  fifteen 
feet  long,  extending  for  a  short  distance  upon  the 
bank;  on  the  other  twenty-five  feet  long,  overlapping 
the  bank  in  the  sane  manner;  and  in  the  interval  or 
central  portion  it  was  constructed,  for  thirty-one  feet, 
of  interlaced  sticks  and  poles. 

Upon  the  outlet  of  Lake  Helen  there  is  another 
dam  (No.  4),  which  is  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet 
long,  and  two  feet  six  inches  high  at  its  greatest  ele- 
vation. It  was  situated  so  far  down  the  outlet  that 
the  water  of  the  pond  did  not  set  back  as  far  as  the 
lake.  At  an  early  day  this  lake  was  known  among 
the  trappers  as  Beaver  Lake,  from  the  number  of 
beavers  found  inhabiting  its  banks. 


118 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


There  are  two  dams  on  ihe  outlet  connecting  Lake 
Flora  .vith  Lake  Mary,  which  are  numbered  2  and  3  on 
the  map.  Of  these  the  lower  one  is  an  ordinary  Jam, 
apparently  constructed  to  strengthen  the  one  above. 
The  upper  one  is  situated  about  six  rods  down  the  out- 
let from  Lake  Flora,  and  is  a  large  and  reraaikable 
structure.  It  is  two  hundred  and  three  feet  in  length, 
with  a  nearly  uniform  height  of  three  feet  from  one 
end  to  the  other,  and  with  a  lower  face  of  stick  and 
pole  work,  ranging  from  six  to  nine  feet  in  length, 
measured  on  its  slope.  The  difference  in  level  in  the 
waters  above  and  bel()W  the  dam,  at  the  thread  of  the 
Outlet,  is  three  feet ;  but,  as  the  dam  below  sets  back 
the  water  about  two  feet  r'eep  at  this  point,  the  verti- 
cal height  of  the  structure  here  is  five  feet  and  over. 
From  these  measurements  an  impression  is  afforded 
of  the  large  amount  of  solid  materials  this  dam  con- 
tains. Although  inferior  to  the  Grass  Lake  dam,  it 
compares  with  it  not  unfavorably.  The  size  of  Lake 
Flora  is  materially  enlarged  by  Ihis  barrier  across 
its  outlet,  since  it  raised  the  water  permanently  from 
two  and  a  half  to  three  feet.  This  dam,  with  its  ap- 
purtenances, was  the  possession,  among  other  proprie- 
tors, of  the  beaver  whose  skeleton  is  represented  in 
the  plate.  She  was  caught  upon  it  in  the  year  1862, 
while  in  the  act  of  repairing  a  breach  made  by  the 
trapper,  a  few  dayc  before  I  visited  and  measured  the 
work.  The  great  amount  of  materials  contained  in 
this  structure  is  shown  by  the  unusual  width  of  its 
crest  or  summit,  which  presupposes  a  corresponding 
transverse  width  at  its  base. 


BEAVER   DAMS. 


119 


At  70  fiM>t  from 
■uiithwest  end. 

At  0")  fi>et  from 
same  uod. 

At  140  ((it  from 
Bamo  i'Ik). 

Width  of  dam  at  crest 

4  ft. 

7   ft. 
3  ft. 

4  ft. 

8  ft. 
3  ft. 

4  ft. 
9  ft. 
6  ft. 

flinno  of  lower  fftco 

Vertical  height 

About  a  quarter  of  a  mile  above  Lake  Flora  there 
is  another  small  lake,  or  more  properly  a  pond,  formed 
by  two  beaver  dams,  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
apart,  but  with  no  pond  between  them.  They  have 
the  appearance  of  one  dam  in  two  lifts,  although  en- 
tirely distinct;  and  are  shown  on  the  map  as  No.  1 
The  lower  one  is  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  long, 
and  high  enough  to  set  back  water  three  feet  deep  to 
the  dam  above.  Its  only  apparent  object,  as  in  a  pre- 
vious case,  is  to  strengthen  the  upper  darn,  by  dimin- 
ishing the  pressure  upon  it  of  its  pond.  The  latter  is 
fifty  feet  long  and  three  feet  in  height  above  the  water 
below  it  at  the  centre,  which,  as  it  is  three  feot  deep, 
gives  a  total  height  of  six  feet  to  the  structure  at  this 
point. 

The  highest  dam,  of  which  I  have  gained  a  knowl- 
edge, is  situated  on  a  tributary  of  the  Pishikeeme 
Eiver,  in  township  49,  range  30,  and  section  34,  about 
ten  miles  north  of  the  east  end  of  Michigame  Lake. 
It  is  constructed  in  a  gorge  between  high  hills.  As 
described  to  me  by  William  Bass  and  Paul  Pine,  two 
native  Ojibwa  trappers,  who  have  seen  it  many  times, 
it  is  the  highest  of  all  the  dams  known  in  the  Lake 
Superior  region.  It  is  about  thirty-five  feet  long, 
twelve  feet  in  vertical  height,  and  with  a  slopd  of  in- 
terlaced poles  on  its  lower  face  upwards  of  twenty 
feet  in  length.     I  have  not  been  able  to  visit  this  re- 


120 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


Ii 


markable  structure  and  ascertain  its  dimensions  by 
actual  measurement;  but,  judging  from  the  character 
and  extent  of  the  other  erections  of  the  beavers 
within  this  area,  1  see  no  reason  for  disbeUeving  the 
statement.  It  was  named  and  described  by  them  as 
the  highest  beaver  structure  within  their  knowledge. 

Some  of  the  dams  in  this  region  are  not  less  re- 
markable for  their  prodigious  length,  a  state-^^ient  of 
which,  in  fet't,  would  scarcely  be  credited  unless  veri- 
fied by  actual  measurement.  The  longest  one  yet 
mentioned  measured  two  hundred  and  sixty  feet,  but 
there  are  dams  four  hundred,  and  even  five  hundred 
feet  long. 

There  is  a  dam,  in  two  sections,  situated  upon  a 
tributary  of  the  main  branch  of  the  Esconauba  River, 
about  a  mile  and  a  half  northwest  of  the  Washingti  >n 
Miuv^.  One  section  measures  one  hundred  and  ten, 
and  the  other  four  hundred  and  twenty  feet,  with  an 
interval  of  natural  bank,  worked  here  and  there,  of 
one  thou  -  -  nd  feet.  A  solid-bank  danij  twenty  feet  in 
length,  was  first  constructed  across  the  channel  of  the 
stream,  from  bank  to  bank,  with  the  usual  opening, 
for  the  surplus  water,  five  feet  wide.  As  the  water 
rose  and  overhowed  the  bank  on  the  left  side,  the  dam 
was  extended  for  ninety  feet  until  it  reached  ground 
high  enough  to  confine  the  pond.  This  natural  bank 
extended  up  the  stream,  and  nearly  parallel  with  it, 
for  one  thousand  feet,  where  the  ground  again  subsided, 
and  allowed  the  water  in  the  upper  part  of  the  pond 
to  flow  out  and  around  into  the  channel  of  the  stream 
below  the  dam.  To  meet  this  emergency,  a  second 
dam,  four  hundred  and  twenty  feet  long,  was  con- 
structed.    For  the  greater  part  of  its  length  it  is  low, 


BEAVER   DAMS. 


but  in  some  places  it  is  two  and  a  half  and  three  feet 
high,  and  constructed  of  stick-work  on  the  lower,  and 
with  an  earth  embankment  on  its  water  face.  In 
effect,  tlierefore,  it  is  one  structure  fifteen  hundred 
and  thirty  feet  in  length,  of  which  five  hundred  and 
thirty  feet,  in  two  sections,  is  artificial,  and  the  re- 
mainder natural  bank,  but  worked  here  and  there, 
where  depressions  in  the  ground  required  raising  by 
artificial  means.  As  this  dam  had  been  cut  through, 
and  the  water  drawn  out  of  the  pond  about  two  years 
before  I  visited  and  measured  the  work  in  1866,  it 
was  then  falling  into  decay. 

Three  miles  north  of  Clarksburg,  in  the  south- 
east quarter  of  section  25,  there  are  three  large 
beaver  dams,  constructed  on  the  same  stream,  and 
from  a  quarter  to  a  third  of  a  mile  apart.  They  are 
situated  upon  an  affluent  of  the  main  branch  of  the 
Esconauba  River,  The  first  or  lower  dam  measured 
three  hundred  and  eighty-five  feet  in  length,  and  is  a 
large  structure  throughout  its  entire  extent.  It  was 
four  feet  high  where  it  crossed  the  channel  of  the 
stream,  and  three  feet  high  for  two-thirds  of  the  re- 
mainder of  its  length.  Along  this  stream  the  prevail- 
ing trees  are  spruce,  tamarack,  and  cedar,  interspersed 
with  poplar,  with  the  latter  of  which  the  dam  was 
constructed.  As  the  poplar  is  a  soft  wood,  larger, 
and  often  shorter  billets  were  used,  thnn  in  the  dams 
previously  described.  This  dam,  in  external  appear- 
ance, was  much  inferior  to  those  made  of  hard  wood. 
The  upper  dam  measured  five  hundred  and  fifty-one 
feet  in  continuous  length  along  its  crest.  Divided  into 
sections  It  gave  the  following  vertical  elevations : 


122 

First  Bcctio 

Second 

Ti.irl 

Fc.irth 

Fifth 

Sixth 

Total  lengtl 

THE   AMERICAN 
n  of   84  feet 

BEAVER. 

.  8  feet  hiirh. 

"     100    "  

"     100     "  

.  2 

.  1  foot  6  inches. 

"     100     "  

.  1  foot. 

"     100     "  

9  inches 

"       G7     "  

G 

,       651  feet. 

t 

For  two  hundred  feet  on  the  east  end  of  the  dam, 
which  was  its  lowest  part,  it  was  carried  up  the  stream 
patallel  with  its  course,  and  a  few  rods  in  front  of  the 
rising  ground  which  formed  its  bank.  Here  it  was 
constructed  almost  entirely  of  mud  and  sod.  This 
left  a  narrow  channel  of  water  along  the  crest  of  the 
dam,  which  answered  the  purposes  of  a  canal,  the 
ground  being  a  swamp  on  either  sido.  In  places  it 
was  simply  a  ditch,  excavated  in  the  soft  wet  earth, 
the  materials  being  thrown  up  in  the  form  of  a  con- 
tinuous embankment  on  the  lower  side,  thus  forming 
a  low  dam  with  a  narrow  water  channel  on  the  upper 
side.  The  excavation  was  from  two  to  three  feet 
deep,  and  the  embankment  rose  about  six  inches  high. 
This  seems  scarcely  credible,  especially  as  it  resembled 
so  closely  the  work  of  the  spade,  but  nevertheless  it 
was  the  handiwork  of  beavers. 

A  mile  and  a  half  southwest  of  the  mine  hist 
named,  there  is  another  very  fine  beaver  dam  three 
hundred  and  eighty  feet  long,  and  unusually  high 
and  broad  throughout  its  entire  extent.  It  will  aver- 
age three  feet  high  for  two  hundred  feet,  and  at  the 
centre  it  is  four  feet  high,  and  quite  massive.  The 
amount  of  solid  materials  in  this  structure  is  not  less 
than  in  that  at  Grass  Lake.  Mr.  John  Armstrong, 
before  mentioned,  with  whom  I  spent  a  part  of  a 
night  upon  this  dam,  captured  thirteen  beavers  upon 


BEAVER   DAMS. 


123 


it  in  the  fall  and  winter  of  1865.  There  are  three 
lodges  upon  the  borders  of  the  pond,  which  would 
give  to  them,  before  they  were  disturbed,  twenty-one 
beaver  occupants,  by  the  usual  rule  of  computation. 
There  were  also  t\{^o  beaver  canals  connected  witlt  the 
pond. 

In  the  year  1862,  I  heard,  through  Capt.  Daniel 
Wilson,  of  a  long  dam,  constructed  upon  a  small  brook 
which  falls  into  Carp  River  high  up  on  this  stream; 
and  went  with  him  to  ascertain  its  length  by  measure- 
ment. This  dam  is  marked  No.  19  on  the  map.  It 
proved  to  be  a  fine  structure,  and  of  extraordinary 
length.  On  careful  measurement  with  a  tape-line, 
following  the  crest  of  the  dam,  we  found  its  total 
length  on  a  continuous  line  to  be  four  hundred  and 
eighty-eight  feet.  For  two  hundred  feet,  from  its 
commencement  on  the  left  bank  of  the  stream,  it  is 
one  of  the  most  perfect  and  artistically  formed  struct- 
ures in  the  Lake  Superior  region,  although  not  so 
high,  and,  for  this  reason,  not  equal  to  that  at  Grass 
Lake.  The  pond  was  full  to  the  crest  of  the  dam, 
thus  showing  that  it  was  occupied  by  beavers,  which 
fact  was  afterward  further  confirmed  by  opening  the 
lodges  upon  its  borders.  It  seemed  to  me  to  be  very 
desirable  to  perpetuate  this  dam  in  a  photograph 
while  in  its  present  perfect  condition;  not  so  much  to 
fehow  the  best  part  of  the  work,  as  to  verify,  in  a 
manner  that  would  admit  of  no  future  question,  the 
fact  of  its  extraordinary  length  when  considered  in 
connection  with  the  limited  physical  powers  of  its 
architects.  This  desire  was  strengthened  by  the 
further  consideration  that  these  dams  begin  to  decay 
as  soon  as  they  are  deserted  by  the  beavers,  and 


124 


THE  AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


quickly  thereafter  disappear;  and  that  in  no  cafie  do 
the  hitter  remain  in  any  district  long  after  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  first  settlements  in  their  vicinity.  If 
anything  was  done,  therefore,  it  was  imperative  that 
it  should  be  done  immediately.  Having  ascertained 
that  my  friend,  Rev.  Josiah  Phelps,  Rector  of  St. 
Peter's  Church  at  Marquette,  had  an  excellent  instru- 
ment, and  the  necessary  chemicals,  which,  with  his 
skill,  he  was  willing  to  place  at  my  disposal,  and 
that  Mr.  Walter  Kidder,  who,  like  Mr.  Phelps,  was 
an  amjiteur  photographer,  was  willing  to  assist  in  the 
work,  a  programme  was  arranged  among  us  to  secure 
a  photographic  representation  of  this  interesting 
structure.  As  a  conclusion  to  the  subject  of  beaver 
dams,  I  propose  to  give  some  account  of  the  manner 
in  which  this  enterprise  was  accomplished. 

At  the  time  the  photograph  was  taken,  the  Mar- 
quette and  Ontonagon  Railroad,  which  now  passes 
within  a  mile  of  this  dam,  was  not  completed  beyond 
the  Lake  Superior  Mine;  but  a  very  good  trail  had 
recently  been  cut  out  which,  passing  within  half  a 
mile  of  its  site,  made  it  comparatively  easy  of  access. 
It  was  necessary,  as  a  preparatory  measure,  to  cut 
away  the  forest  for  some  distance  below  the  dam,  and 
to  clear  the  latter  of  grass  and  weeds.  The  area  im- 
mediately below  was  heavily  wooded  with  tamarack, 
cedar,  and  spruce,  interspersed  with  thickets  of  alder 
and  willow  upon  the  lowest  ground.  To  prepare  the 
dam  for  being  photographed,  and  to  arrange  the  sta- 
tions for  the  instrument,  I  went  in  with  a  part}'  of 
men  in  advance,  and  commenced  the  work.  Having 
previously  ascertained  that  the  instrument  would 
take,  upon  a  ten-inch  plate,  fifty  feet  of  the  dam 


BEAVER   DAMS. 


126 


measured  in  a  straight  line,  when  stationed  at  a  dis- 
tance of  sixty-two  feet,  and  show  its  structure  with 
sufficient  minuteness,  we  adopted  a  plan  to  ])hotograpii 
it  upon  seven  such  plates.  In  the  first  place,  eight 
stations  were  established,  and  flag-staffs  erected,  de- 
fining the  space  assigned  to  each  plate.  Of  these,  the 
firs'.,  six  were  in  a  straight  line,  and  each  was  in,  or 
near  the  crest  line  of  the  dam.  At  the  sixth  station 
the  general  direction  of  the  dam  inclined  down  stream, 
with  which  divergence  the  last  two  were  made  to  cor- 
respond. We  then  cut  a  line  ten  feet  wide  through 
the  thickets  of  willow  and  alder,  removing  the  forest 
trees  as  well,  running  it  parallel  with  the  flag-staffs, 
and  sixty-two  feet  below  them.  This  line  was  for  the 
movement  as  well  as  to  afford  a  position  for  the  scaf- 
fold for  the  instrument.  After  this,  it  was  necessary 
to  determine  the  position  for  the  scaffold  in  front  of 
each  section  of  fifty  feet  of  the  dam,  and  then  to  cut 
out  a  triangular  opening  between  the  two,  having  its 
apex  at  the  scaffold  station.  It  was  further  found 
advisable  to  make  the  first  section  of  the  dam,  com- 
mencing at  the  end  on  the  right,  seventy  feet  long; 
the  second,  third,  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth,  each  fifty 
feet;  and  the  seventh  and  last,  seventy  feet.  The 
first  plate  taken  was  to  be  of  the  second  section,  with 
the  ocaffbld  immediately  in  front  of  its  centre,  and  the 
second  of  the  first  section,  by  turning  the  instrument 
to  the  right,  and  not  otherwise  changing  its  position. 
At  this  angle  it  would  embrace  the  whole  seventy 
feet,  as  well  as  make  the  background  harmonious  as 
to  these  two  plates.  After  that  the  scaffold  was  to  be 
removed  successively  to  the  centre  of  each  remaining 
section  on  to  the  sixth,  from  which  point  the  last  sec 


126 


THE    AMERICAN   HEAVER. 


mi) 

lUi 

iiii' 


1 


tion  of  seventy  feet  was  to  be  tjiken  by  turning  the 
instrument  to  the  left,  without  changing  its  focal 
position,  as  dune  in  the  previous  case.  This  would 
give  to  the  seven  plates  a  lineal  length  of  three  hun- 
dred and  ninety  feet,  and  an  actual  length  of  dam, 
measured  upon  its  sinuous  crest,  of  four  hundred  and 
twenty-six  feet.  The  dam,  for  the  htatnamed  length, 
is  shown  in  the  plates,  witli  the  background  of  the 
pond  und  surrounding  forest  three  times  repeated  in 
the  three  central  plates.  Besides  this,  however,  a 
portion  of  the  dam  sixty-two  feet  long  is  not  shown. 
When  the  dam  had  approached  witliin  six  feet  of  the 
bank  on  the  left  side,  it  turned  directly  down  stream 
parallel  with  it,  and  was  'Extended  for  the  distance 
last  named,  when  it  jSnally  terminated  in  the  bank; 
thus  forming  a  narrow  canal  which  followed  the  dam 
down  to  its  extreme  end.  The  point  where  it  turns 
is  concealea  from  view  by  a  clump  of  cedar-trees 
which  are  seen  in  the  left  end  of  the  plate.  Two 
days  were  expended  by  this  advance  party  in  cutting 
out  the  several  lines,  establishing  the  stations,  and  in 
making  a  commencement  of  the  work. 

On  Tuesday,  the  30th  day  of  September,  1862,  with 
the  instrument  and  chemicals  packed  in  boxes,  we 
went  up  the  railroad  from  Marquette  to  the  Superior 
Mine,  where  we  organized  and  provisirned  our  par\y 
for  an  encampment  of  several  day?  at  the  dam,  some 
six  miles  distant.  The  next  day  proved  unfavorable, 
with  mist  and  rain,  but  we  reached  our  destination 
without  accident  to  the  materials,  erected  two  brush- 
camps,  framed  and  put  together  a  movable  scaflb'd 
twelve  feet  high,  with  a  ladder  to  mount  it,  and 
finished  clearing  away  the  area  in  front  of  the  first 


BEAVEK    DAMS. 


127 


two  sections.  The  work  of  chopping  was  also  «Nin- 
tinucd,  as  we  found  it  neces.uiry  to  cut  down  and 
remove  all  the  trees  Ibr  twenty-five  feet  in  width 
along  the  entire  front  of  the  dam,  as  well  as  from  the 
triangular  space  in  front  of  each  scaffold  station. 
Besides  this,  the  dark  tent  for  preparing  the  plates 
was  also  erected.  When,  at  a  late  hour,  we  sat  down 
to  our  dinner,  in  this  secluded  place,  our  party  of  nine 
men,  with  their  camps  under  the  shade  of  the  tall 
tf  riiaracks,  and  the  great  dam  stretching  across  from 
hill  to  hill,  presented  quite  a  novel  spectacle. 

The  next  day,  Thursday,  came  out  clear  and  bright, 
and  we  commenced  early.  Section  two  was  first  taken, 
and  the  attempt  proved  succesitu] ;  then  section  one, 
and  after  that  section  three,  with  equal  success.  After 
this,  the  fourth  plate  was  tried  and  failed;  three  other 
plates  of  the  jame  section  were  also  successively  tried 
and  failed;  whereupon,  at  four  o'clock,  we  gave  up 
for  the  day,  except  the  v/ork  of  chopping  and  clear- 
ing, which  were  continued  to  the  last  hour  of  our 
stay. 

About  ten  o'clock  that  night  it  clouded  up,  and 
soon  thereafter  we  had  wind  and  rain.  Friday  morn- 
ing came  in  with  fog  and  mist,  which  lasted  through- 
out the  day,  with  a  breaking  up  toward  evening,  but 
no  sun.  We  took  two  other  plates  of  section  four, 
and  decided  to  keep  the  last.  On  the  afternoon  of 
this  day  I  made  a  new  and  careful  measurement  of 
the  dam,  with  the  result  gi^eii  below,  and  also  opened 
aiid  measured  the  two  lodges  appurtenant  to  the 
structure.  The  next  day  would  be  Saturday,  and  our 
last  chance,  and  we  had  three  plates  yet  to  take. 
As  we  were  six  miles  from  the  nearest  habitation 


128 


THE   AMERICAN    nEAVKR. 


and  twf'uty-tliroe  from  Marquottc,  wo  woiild  ho  oom- 
pelled  to  hroak  up  our  oncanipmont  ut  noon  to  roacli 
town  that  ni<:ht,  where  my  friend,  tlie  rector,  was 
needed  to  olliciate  in  another  capacity  on  the  ensuing 
Sahbath.  I  began  to  fear  for  the  residue  of  my  picture, 
as  the  night  set  in  rainy,  with  thunder  and  lightning. 
Morning  came,  bringing  with  it  no  sun,  but  a  gale  of  • 
wind,  winch  set  tlie  tall  tamaracks  crashing  down 
around  us.  Those,  against  which  our  camps  were 
constructed,  were  twisted  oil";  but  as  the  wind  came 
down  the  pond,  we  were  safe  in  the  open  space  below 
the  dam,  and  besides  this,  it  soon  lifted  tiie  clouds. 
Having  moved  the  scaffold  the  day  previous  to  the 
front  of  the  fifth  section,  with  the  first  appearance  of 
sunlight  this  section  was  taken  successfully  on  the 
first  trial,  after  which  it  was  removed  to  the  fifth  and 
last  position,  from  which  the  sixth  and  seventh  plates 
were  taken  with  equal  success.  As  the  last  three 
plates,  like  the  first  three,  were  taken  in  sunshine 
more  or  less  strong,  while  the  fourth  was  taken  under 
heavy  clouds,  we  moved  back  the  scaffold  in  front  of 
the  latter  section,  tried  again  and  succeeded,  and  our 
work  was  done.  We  then  packed  up  our  materials, 
broke  up  our  camp,  and  returned  to  the  railroad  sta- 
tion in  time  for  the  last  train  to  Marquette;  having 
t  ccomplished,  whether  important  or  otherwise,  the 
undertaking  of  preserving  a  permanent  memorial  of 
this  remarkable  beaver  structure.* 

The  pond  covers  about  twenty-five  acres  of  land. 


^  The  photographs  put  together  make  a  picture  six  feet  and 
eight  inches  long.  It  was  expected,  when  the  text  was  written, 
that  this  dam  would  be  engraved. 


BKAVKR    DAMS. 


129 


and  continues  lu^rosa  tlio  entire  length  of  tlie  dam, 
altlioiigii  <{uite  narrow  U[)on  it8  lul't  iitilt'. 


MeaaurementH. 

Htrilnlit  line.  Qro^X  llin-  of  lUm. 

Pirnt  neotion T'lfcct.  HI  (Vcl  )>  iiu-lie». 

Mecond  Heofioii GO"  6.S    "    t)      •• 

Third  suction 60  "  tiri    "    «       " 

Fouriii  Mcction 60  "  (io    ••    t( 

Fifth  section 60"  67     •    •»      " 

Sixth  Kfction 50"  67    "    0      " 

Seventh  Hcclioii 70"  64    "    0      " 

Hero  the  dam  turns  down  Hlrcuni  10  rt.  from  bank,  and  runs  ti2    " 

Total  length  of  dam  measured  on  crest  line,  IHH  tuvt. 
Other  MenHurementa. 


Slope  of  lower  face 

Slope  0'   viterface 

Depth  of  .ater  at  end  ot 

slope 

Vertical  height  of  dam 


AtM)  I   At  85  I  At  1441  At 200    At 'Jtiol  At  .'in'  At  .'t7fi 
ft.frdiii  ft.frciiii  ft.froiii  ft.frdiii  (l.fii.iii  IVfioni  ft.fnuii 


end. 


Ft.  In. 
3  C 
8 

7 
o    o 


end. 

Ft   In. 
8    6 
10 

8 


end. 

Ft.  In. 
10  8 
12 

9 
4    0 


rnil. 

Ft.  In. 

8 

y 


end. 


end. 


end. 


Ft.  In.  AV.   In.  Ft.  In 


8 
8 

5 

1    8 


(3 
7 

5 
1    8 


6 
<> 

4 

1    8 


i 


This  dam  is  a  continuous  work  from  one  end  to  the 
other.  In  two  or  three  places  there  is  a  natural  ris'^ 
of  the  ground  as  high  as  the  top  of  the  dam  for  .  „ 
feet  in  length,  but  the  inner  slope  is  bunked  with 
earth,  and  the  summit  worked.  There  are  other 
places  where  the  embankment  is  solid,  showing  very 
little  wood  intermixed,  but  it  is  artificial.  The  depth 
of  the  pond  a  few  feet  back,  or  at  the  end  of  the  water 
slope,  does  not  necessarily  show  the  original  ground 
surface,  as  earth  may  have  been  brought  up  from  the 
bottom  to  place  upon  the  dam;  and  yet  the  removal 


130 


TlIK    AMKRK  AN    IlKAVKH. 


of  tlio  oarth  from  a  puirit  nn  nciir  would  Hoom  to  cn- 
(lun^'tT  till!  work,  ami  to  Im'  for  tins  n-UHon  iriiprolnihlc. 
Tal\(  n  as  a  wliolo,  aii<l  as  a  htMivfr  structure,  it  is  an 
cxtraonliiiary  pioco  of  aiiinial  rnociiauiHrn,  wiM'tiier 
couHiilcrcd  with  refi'roiu'o  to  its  },'reut  Iciigtii,  the 
amount  of  materials  it  contains,  or  its  artistic  ap- 
pearance. It  has  undoubtedly  been  built  upon  and 
repaired  year  after  year  until  it  reached  its  |)resent 
dinieuHions;  an<l  it  is  not  in  the  least  improbal)le  that 
it  has  existed  and  been  continued  for  centuries. 

There  are  other  districts  in  North  America  where 
beaver  dams  are  not  less  numerous  than  in  the  regions 
bordering  upon  Lake  Superior.  Along  the  IW;ky 
Mountain  chain,  for  a  distance  of  more  than  two 
thousand  miles,  there  are  particular  localities,  on  both 
sides  of  the  rang9,  wiiere  these  erections  are  found  in 
considerable  numbers.  They  are  also  numerous  in 
the  streams  which  flow  from  the  Wind  River,  the 
Big  Horn,  and  the  Laramie  Mountains,  and  from  the 
Black  Hills,  but  they  are  usually  small,  ranging  from 
fifty  to  one  hundred  feet  in  length,  and  from  two  to 
three  feet  high.  On  Eagle  Kiver  and  other  tributa- 
ries of  the  Colorado,  and  upon  the  aflluents  of  the 
Rio  Grande,  near  its  sources,  beaver  dams  of  consider- 
able magnitude  have  been  noticed  by  explorers.  In 
the  thick  wood  country  along  Hudson's  Bay,  and 
for  a  circuit  of  three  hundred  miles  around  and  back 
of  its  shores,  they  are  especially  numerous.  From 
general  descriptions  of  these  dams,  obtained  from  va- 
rious sources,  and  particularly  from  trappers,  with 
whom  these  several  regions  are  familiar,  It  is  evident 
that  they  are  all  constructed  on  the  same  general 
plan,  and  in  the  same  manner  as  the  varieties  herein 


nEAVKR  DAMS. 


ini 


(l«'srril)0(1.  Dams  cMnstrnctjMl  of  cotton-wnotl  iiixl  wil- 
low, of  which  1  hiivc  HtMMi  a  miiiih«'r  of  sprciMinis 
oil  the  trihiitarics  of  the  l-piK-r  Missouri,  hctwmi  the 
YcllowstoiH'  and  thi'  Hooky  MoiintuiiiH,  an*  inl'erior 
ill  appoarance  to  tiiost;  in  which  hard  wo(mI  is  used,  ha 
in  tlio  Lake  Superior  ivjrion;  hut  the  dinbrcnccs  do 
not  aflt'ct  the  stahility  or  eflicicncy  of  the  structun-s. 
Bt'foro  conchiding  the  suhject  of  heaver  (huns,  one 
other  variety  remainH  to  he  noticed,  which  in  novelty 
HurpasHeH  all  others.  In  Montana  Territory  three 
heaver  dams  have  Ijeen  discovered  in  a  petrified  state. 
They  were  found  upon  a  small  stream  that  ruiix 
through  the  Point  Neuf  Oafion,  and  empties  into  the 
Snake  River,  one  of  the  trihutaries  of  the  (.'olumhia. 
This  canon  is  about  three  hundred  miles  north  of  Salt 
Lake  City.  In  length  these  dams  are  from  fifty  to 
sixty  feet,  with  a  fall  of  water  over  two  of  them,  at 
the  centre,  of  from  three  to  four  feet,  and  over  the 
third  of  about  one  foot.  They  were  not  in  that  com- 
plete and  final  state  of  petrifaction  which  involves  the 
change  of  every  particle  of  the  original  woody  mate- 
rialo,  and  the  suurttitution  of  solid  substances;  but 
rather  incrusted  with  lime,  which,  penetrating  and 
solidifying  the  entire  structures,  had  given  to  them  a 
permanently  durable  form  It  seems  not  a  little  sin- 
gular that  Nature  should  thus  wrap  up  with  her  kindly 
and  preserving  hand  these  memorials  of  the  skill  and 
labor  of  the  beaver,  and  hold  them  as  a  part  of  her 
vast  record  of  the  past.  My  friend,  Prof.  Henry  A. 
Ward,  of  the  University  of  Rochester,  discovered  these 
dams  while  engaged  in  a  geological  exploration  in 
Montana,  in  the  year  1865,  and  from  him  I  received 
the  above  n'^i^ount. 


CHAPTER   V. 

.     BEAVER   LODGES   AND   BURROWS. 

Habits  of  Beaver — Our  Knowledge  limited— Indians  and  Trappers  as  Ob- 
servers— Source  of  Buffon's  Extraviigunt  Statements — Disposition  of 
Beavers  to  pair— The  Family — Outcast  Beaver — Beaver  Migrations — 
Adaptation  to  Aquatic  Life — Suspension  of  Respiration — Length  of  Time 
— Artifice  of  Musk-Rat — Burrowing  Propensities — Varieties  of  the  Beaver 
Lodge — Island  Lodge  at  Grass  Lake — Size  and  Form — Chamber — Floor 
— Wood  Entrance — Beaver  Entrance — Their  Artistic  Character — Bank 
Lodge — Mode  of  Construction — Chamber — Entrances — Another  Variety 
of  Bank  Lodge — Chamber  and  Entrances — Nature  of  Floor — Lake  Lodge 
— Differences  from  other  Varieties — False  Lodge  of  Upper  Missouri — 
Lodges  Sing'-^  Chambered — Burrows,  their  Form,  Size,  and  Uses — Ex- 
amples, with  Mensurements — Number  of  Beavers  to  the  Lodge — Number 
of  Lodges  to  the  Pond. 

Notwithstanding  our  familiarity  with  the  beaver, 
through  the  persevering  efforts  made  for  his  capture 
by  both  American  and  Indian  trappers,  the  amount  of 
our  minute  information  concerning  him  is  not  as  large 
as  might  have  been  expected.  Any  attempt  to  pro- 
nounce definitely  upon  his  habits  and  mode  of  life 
will  lead  us  into  errors,  if  we  pass  beyond  such  facts 
as  are  susceptible  of  verification.  These  facts,  from 
the  nature  of  the  case,  are  difficult  of  ascertainment. 
Although  not  exclusively  nocturnal  in  his  habits,  the 
beaver  performs  the  principal  part  of  his  work  at 
night.  He  is  both  shy  and  timorous  of  disposition, 
and,  when  seen,  it  is  usually  by  accident,  for  a  brief 
space  of  time,  and  when  engaged  in  one  particular 
act.  No  single  observer,  however  favorable  his  oppor- 
tunities, could  cover  the  field,  for  which  reason  it  is 
(132) 


i     f 


BEAVER   LODGES   AND   BURROWS. 


133 


necessary  to  collect  and  compare  the  observations  of 
a  large  number  of  persons  to  ascertain  even  the  prin- 
cipal facts.  While,  therefore,  their  artificial  erections 
speak  for  themselves,  their  habits,  in  other  respects, 
can  only  be  determined  by  a  series  of  authenticated 
acts,  in  the  ascertainment  of  which  the  greatest  cau- 
tion should  be  used.  There  is  enough,  within  the 
limits  of  the  veritable,  which  is  sufficiently  remarka- 
ble, without  entering  the  domain  of  fancy  to  produce 
a  picture. 

The  Indian  is  a  close,  and,  in  the  main,  an  accurate 
observer  of  the  habits  of  animals.  Without  hesita- 
tion he  places  the  beaver  in  the  highest  rank  among 
them  for  intelligence  and  sagacity.  It  is  also  a  part 
of  the  vocation  of  the  white  trapper  to  be  versed  in 
their  characteristics  and  manner  of  life  to  prosecute 
efficiently  his  calling.  From  these  sources  of  infor- 
mation, and  particularly  from  the  last,  the  extrava- 
gant statements  concerning  the  domestic  economy  of 
beaver  communities  were  derived,  which  Buffijn  was 
among  the  first  to  adopt  and  promulgate  under  the 
sanction  of  his  distinguished  name.  The  reaction 
which  followed  the  disproval  of  these  fictions  tended 
rather  to  arrest  further  investigation  than  to  turn  it 
in  the  right  direction ;  so  that  from  Buffon's  time  to 
the  present  but  little  progress  has  been  made  in  our 
knowledge  of  this  animal.  After  considerable  inter- 
course with  Indian  and  white  trappers  on  the  south 
shore  of  Lake  Superior,  in  the  Hudson's  Bay  terri- 
tory, and  upon  the  Upper  Missouri,  I  have  been  able, 
through  them,  to  verify  but  a  small  number  of  facts 
tending  to  establish,  as  well  as  to  illustrate,  the  habits 
and  mode  of  life  of  this  long-observed  rodent.     At 


134 


TUE   AMER  CAN    BEAVER. 


V    t 


the  same  time  the  amount  of  speculative  opinion  with 
reference  to  his  ways,  which  is  cherished  and  believed 
among  them,  is  very  great.  To  reject  all  their  con- 
clusions, for  want  of  complete  verification,  would  be 
not  less  unwise  than  to  adopt  them  unconditionally.  It 
will,  therefore,  be  my  plan  to  state,  as  facts,  such  only 
as  I  can  assert  upon  personal  observation,  or  have 
verified  upon  reliable  testimony;  and  to  introduce, 
from  time  to  time,  in  addition  thereto,  such  state- 
ments and  conclusions  of  other  persons,  and  upon 
their  authority,  as  have  a  probable  basis  of  truth; 
leaving  their  verification  or  disproval  to  future  inves- 
tigators. 

Beavars  are  social  animals  in  an  eminent  degree. 
This  disposition  is  manifested  in  their  strongly  de- 
veloped propensity  to  pair  and  live  in  the  family 
relation.  It  is  still  further  exemplified  by  t:  e  con- 
struction of  dams,  lodges,  burrows,  and  canals  for 
objects  whicli  are  common  to  them  as  a  family;  and 
by  providing  a  store  of  subsistence  for  winter  use.  A 
beaver  family  consists  of  a  male  and  female,  and  their 
offspring  of  the  first  and  second  years,  or,  more  prop- 
erly, under  two  years  old.  The  females  bring  forth 
their  young,  from  two  to  five  at  a  time,  in  the  month 
of  May,'  and  nurse  them  for  a  few  weeks,  after  which 
the  latter  take  to  bark.  I  have  seen  upon  the  Upper 
Missouri  a  domesticated  beaver  of  three  weeks  old  sus- 
tain himself  upon  twigs  of  cotton-wood.  They  attain 
their  full  growth  at  two  years  and  six  months,  and  live 
from  twelve  to  fifteen  years.  This  last  statement  is 
upon  Indian  authority.    The  cry  of  a  young  beaver  re- 

'  The  rutting  season  is  in  the  month  of  February. 


BEAVER   LODGES   AND   BURROWS. 


135 


serables  very  closely  that  of  a  child  a  few  days  old.  A 
trapper  illustrated  to  the  author  the  completeness  of 
his  deception  by  this  cry,  when  he  first  commenced  his 
vocation  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  by  relating  the  fol- 
lojving  incident:  he  was  once  going  to  his  traps  when 
he  heard  a  cry  which  he  was  sure  was  that  of  a  child ; 
and,  fearing  the  presence  of  an  Indian  camp,  he  crept 
in  cautiously  through  the  cotton-wood  to  the  bank  of 
the  stream,  where  he  discovered  two  young  bejivers 
upon  a  low  bank>of  earth  near  the  water,  crying  for 
their  mother,  whom  he  afterward  found  in  one  of  his 
traps.  On  one  occasion  I  was  similarly  deceived  in 
an  Indian  lodge  at  the  mouth  of  the  Yellowstone  River, 
where  a  young  beaver  was  lapping  milk  from  a  saucer 
while  an  Indian  baby  was  pulling  its  fur.  It  was  not 
until  after  several  repetitions  that  I  noticed  that  it  was 
the  cry  of  the  beaver  instead  of  the  child.  When  the 
first  litter  attain  the  age  of  two  years,  and  in  the  third 
summer  after  their  birth,  they  are  sent  out  from  the 
parent  lodge  to  seek  mates  and  establish  families  for 
themselves,  in  which  movement  they  are  followed  by 
each  successive  litter  upon  the  attainment  of  the  same 
age.  Such  at  least  is  the  uniform  testimony  of  both 
Indian  and  white  trappers,  in  support  of  which  they 
assign  the  following  reasons:  first,  that  when  they 
capture  an  entire  family  in  one  lodge  or  burrow,  which 
is  not  unfrequent,  they  rarely,  if  ever,  find  more  than 
two  old  beavers,  the  remainder  being  under  two  years 
old ;  and  that  the  usual  number  found  in  one  lodge 
ranges  from  four  to  eight,  and  rarely  exceeds  twelve: 
secondly,  that  these  numbers  exhaust  the  accommoda- 
tions of  the  lodge:  thirdly,  that  old  beavers  arc  jealous 
of,  and  hostile  to  their  young  after  they  attain  ma- 


136 


THE   AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


1  i 


turity:  and,  lastly,  their  well-known  propensity  to 
pair.  A  fanciful  notion  prevails  among  the  Indians, 
that  if  young  beavers,  thus  sent  out,  fail  to  pair,  they 
are  allowed  to  return  to  the  parent  lodge  and  remain 
until  the  ensuing  summer;  but  as  a  mark  of  parental 
disapprobation,  for  their  ill  matrimonial  success,  they 
are  required  to  do  the  work  of  repairing  the  dam. 
There  is  another  ramification  of  the  same  conceit,  to 
the  eflfect  that  if  they  fail  again  to  mate  in  the  ensu- 
ing summer,  they  are  not  allowed  to  return  a  second 
time,  but  that  they  become  from  thenceforth  "outcast 
beavers."  The  existence  of  such  a  class  is  believed 
in,  to  some  extent,  both  by  the  Indians  and  trappers, 
and  the  two  notions  together  furnish  the  only  founda- 
tion for  the  fiction  at  one  time  believed  that  there  was 
a  class  of  slave  beavers.'    These  "outcasts,"  so  called, 

'  This  belief  in  the  existence  of  a  class  of  slave  beavers  appears 
to  have  been  of  Arabian  origin.  In  the  "  Wonders  of  Creation," 
by  Kazvviui,  an  Arabian  author  who  wrote  in  a.d.  1288,  is  the 
following  account:  "The  beaver  (kundur)  is  a  land  and  water 
animal  that  is  found  in  the  smaller  rivers  of  the  country  Isa 
[north  of  the  present  government  of  Novgorod].  He  builds  on 
the  bank  of  the  river  a  house,  and  makes  for  himself  in  this  an 
elevated  place  in  the  form  of  a  bench ;  then,  on  the  right  hand, 
about  a  step  lower,  one  for  his  wife,  and  on  the  left,  one  for  his 
young  ones,  and  on  the  lower  part  of  the  house,  one  for  his  ser- 
vants. His  dwelling  possesses  in  the  lower  part  an  egress  toward 
the  water,  and  another  higher  one  toward  the  land.  If,  therefore, 
an  enemy  comes  on  the  water  side,  or  the  water  rises,  he  escapes 
by  the  egress  leading  to  the  land;  but  if  the  enemy  comes  on  the 
land  side,  by  that  which  leads  to  the  water.  He  nourishes  himself 
on  the  flesh  of  fishes  and  the  wood  of  the  Ghelendech  (?  willow). 
The  merchants  of  that  country  are  able  to  distinguish  the  skins  of 
the  servants  from  that  of  the  masters ;  the  former  hew  the  C'hclen- 
dech  wood  for  their  masters,  drag  it  with  their  maw,  and  break  it 


BEAVER   LODGES   AND   BURROWS. 


137 


are  probably  such  beavers  as,  having  lost  their  mates, 
refused  afterward  to  pair,  and  led  thenceforth  solitary 
lives  in  burrows. 

Beavers  migrate  from  place  to  place  more  or  less 
every  season,  and  particularly  when  a  district  becomes 
overstocked.  There  is  an  annual  migration  down  the 
Missouri  River,  usually  in  the  month  of  Juno,  which 
becomes  the  more  marked  from  the  inability  of  the 
migrants  ever  to  find  their  way  back  agr  '^  its  ix)wer- 
ful  current.*  The  Indians  affirm  that  in  their  local 
migrations  the  old  beavers  go  up  stream,  and  the 
young  go  down,  assigning  as  a  reason  that,  in  the 
struggle  for  existence,  greater  advantages  are  afforded 
near  the  source  than  lower  down  upon  any  stream, 
wherefore  the  old  beavers  wisely  appropriate  the 
former. 

For  his  aquatic  life,  he  needs,  as  well  as  possesses, 
special  organic  adaptations.  He  is  not  only  capable 
of  suspending  respiration  for  an  interval  of  several 
minutes  while  swimming  under  water,  but  also  of 
putting  forth,  at  the  same  time,  his  full  physical 
strength.  With  a  relatively  small  heart  and  lungs, 
his  respiration  is  necessarily  moderate  in  amount;  but 


in  pieces  with  their  forehead,  so  that  in  conseqaence  of  this  office 
the  hair  of  the  head  falls  out  on  the  right  and  left  side.  The 
merchants,  who  are  aware  of  this  fact,  recognize  in  the  hair  of  the 
forehead  thus  rubbed  ofiF  the  skin  of  the  servant.  In  the  skin  of 
the  master  this  mark  of  recognition  is  wanting,  as  he  employs 
himself  with  catching  fish." — (Brandt,  Memoires  de  I'Acaddmie 
de  S.  Petersbourg,  tone  vii.  349.) 

*  A  trapper  whom  I  met  on  the  Missouri  River,  in  1862,  below 
Fort  Piere,  in  Nebraska,  informed  me  that  the  beavers  were  then 
(May  27)  coming  down  the  river;  that  he  saw  thom  daily,  and 
had  taken  over  fifty. 


138 


TIIK    AMKRICAN   BEAVER. 


as  the  blood  must  circulate  while  respiration  is  fius- 
pended,  other  and  independent  vessels  are  provided 
near  the  heart  for  its  reception,  where  it  accumulates 
until  respiration  is  resumed.  If  this  blood  were  th  cown 
upon  the  lungs  while  their  functions  were  suspended, 
it  would  produce  suffocation.  It  is  said  that  I  ^  will 
swim  a  quarter  of  a  mile  under  water  without  coming 
to  the  surface.  Trappers  differ  as  to  the  time  he  will 
remain  under  water,  but  agree  in  placing  it  between 
five  and  ten  minutes.  Mr.  Alchinson,  a  Lake  Superior 
trapper,  informed  me  that  he  once  held  a  beaver, 
caught  in  a  trap,  under  w^ater  for  the  full  space  of  ten 
minutes,  as  he  believed,  without  extinguishing  life. 
In  the  winier  they  are  often  compelled  to  swim  fifty 
and  a  hundred  rods  under  the  ice  to  find  open  water; 
and  they  have  boen  seen  to  take  in  a  fresh  cutting, 
through  a  hole  in  the  ice,  and  swim  with  it  for  thirty 
rods  to  their  lodge. 

The  musk-rat,  whose  aquatic  habits,  and  use  of 
the  pond,  the  burrow,  and  the  lodge,  affiliate  him 
with  the  beaver,  resorts  to  a  singular  but  well- 
attested  expedient  to  lengthen  the  period  of  sus- 
pended respiration,  w^hich  may  be  mentioned  in  this 
connection.  When  swimming  under  ice  he  comes  up 
to  its  lower  surface,  and,  having  expelled  the  air  from 
his  lungs,  waits  for  a  moment,  and  then,  after  drawing 
in  again  the  bubbles  of  air,  proceeds  on  his  way. 
This  fact  has  been  confirmed  to  me  by  so  many  dif- 
ferent observers,  that  I  see  no  reason  to  disbelieve  its 
truth.  Whether  the  air,  by  its  contact  with  the  ice, 
recovered  some  property  of  which  it  had  become  ex- 
hausted, I  leave  as  a  question  to  those  capable  of  its 
determination.     It  is  claimed  that  the  beaver  resorts 


BEAVER   LODGES    AND   BURROWS. 


139 


to  the  same  eKpcJient,  but  I  have  not  been  able  to 
verify  the  fact. 

The  body  of  the  beaver  is  nearly,  if  not  perfectly, 
balanced  upon  his  hip  joints.  From  these  points  as 
fulcrums,  and  by  means  of  his  hind  legs,  feet,  and 
tail;  he  has  the  full  command  of  his  bodily  motions, 
particularly  in  the  water,  without  depending  upon  his 
fore  feet.  In  swimming,  the  propelling  power  is  in 
the  hind  feet  and  legs,  which  are  so  furnished  and 
articulated  as  to  make  him  a  rapid  and  powerful 
swimmer.  ]For  the  same  reason,  when  on  land,  his 
paw^s  become  liberated,  and  he  is  thus  enabled  to  take 
up  earth  and  stones,  and,  holding  them  under  his 
throat,  to  carry  them  short  distances,  walking  upon 
his  hind  feet;  and  also  to  handle  sticks  ai  d  'imbs  of 
trees.  It  is  thus  in  his  structural  organization  that 
we  discover  the  possibility  of  his  architectural  skill.' 

It  is  another  characteristic  of  the  beaver  that  he  is 
a  burrowing  animal.  Indulging  this  propensity,  he 
excavates  chambers  under  ground,  and  constructs 
artificial  lodges  upon  its  surface,  both  of  which  are 
indispensable  to  his  security  and  happiness.  The 
lodge  is  but  a  burrow  above  ground,  covered  with  an 
artificial  roof,  and  possesses  some  advantages  over  the 
latter  as  a  place  for  rearing  their  young.     There  are 


*  The  otter  is  balanced  much  in  the  same  manner,  but  he  is 
smaller,  more  slender,  and  more  agile  in  his  movements.  As  a 
swimmer  he  is  superior  to  the  beaver.  He  will  pursue  and  cap- 
ture a  fish  with  ease  and  certainty.  In  swimming,  hih  fore  feet  are 
not  used,  but  are  pressed  back  against  his  body,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  beaver.  His  bite  sustains  the  statement  of  Aristotle  with 
reference  to  the  European  otter,  viinua  the  fancy  for  hearing  the 
cracking  of  the  bones.  (Supra,  p.  36.) 


a»W.-J«r»»*idUrK«JlW/«w' -••*.•.!«(->'.-•    •• 


140 


THE    AMF.UICAN    nEAVEU. 


reasons  for  ])elieving  that  the  burrow  is  the  normal 
resi(U'nco  of  tlio  beavor;  and  that  the  hxlw  grow  out 
of  it,  in  tlie  prof^^ress  of  tlioir  I'xpt'rionct*,  ))y  natural 
sungestion.  This  subj(K't  will  bo  rofoned  to  aiiain. 
We  hav(!  })ofore  soo';  that  o>  ij  n^  tlie  princijjal  objec^t^ 
of  the  (lam 'va;  tl  o  i"  vni.,i;  jn  t  a  poiul;  t!ms  show- 
inu;  a  desire,  on  th'»  p.  < '  ;!  i  architects,  to  maintain 
a  large  body  of  water  *  ,  a  per' ■•inont  level  for  some 
special  use.  We  come  now  to  m([aire  its  uses,  so  far 
as  they  relate  to  the  lodge  and  the  burrow.  There 
are  several  v^arioties  of  the  beaver  lodijo,  each  of  which 
is  adapted  to  the  peculiarities  of  its  situation;  but 
they  collectively  represent  different  applications  of 
the  same  general  principle  of  construction.  Thus  we 
find  an  island,  a  river  bank,  and  a  lake  lodge,  each 
of  which  has  special  characteristics.  The  same  is 
true,  in  a  less  degree,  of  their  burrows.  Each  will  be 
considered  in  its  order. 

Where  large  ponds  are  formed  by  means  of  dams,  it 
is  not  unusual  to  find  small  grass  islands  rising  a  few 
inches  above  the  level  of  the  water.  These  islands 
were  probably  produced  by  fallen  trees  which  had 
been  Hooded  and  destroyed  by  the  pond,  and  upon  the 
decayed  remains  of  which  x^egetation  had  sprung. 
In  other  cases  there  are  islands  of  firm  earth  which 
chanced  to  rise  naturally  above  the  surface  of  the 
water.  These,  whether  unsubstantial  or  firm,  are 
generally  selected  as  the  sites  for  their  lodges  because 
of  the  additional  protection  which  insulation  affords. 

The  lodge  represented  in  the  engraving  (Plate  XIII.) 
is  situated  upon  one  of  the  low  grass  islands  described, 
and  is  one  of  the  two  found  in  Grass  Lake  above  the 
great  dam.    As  it  was  engraved  from  a  photograph,  it 


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BRAVER   LODT.KS   AND    lU'RHOWS. 


141 


in  an  accurate  representation  cf  a  l)eaver  lodjre,  nud  of 
its  Hurrounding  landscape.  Tliis  lod<;e'  is  considerably 
above  tbe  ordinary  size,  and  a  good  specimen.  In  the 
year  IcSllO  I  opened  it,  and  measured  its  inner  chamber. 
It  was  not  accessible  from  the  land  without  a  boat,  and 
we  wer«»  compelled  to  fell  a  tree  from  the  main  land 
across  to  the  island  as  a  means  of  transit.  When  we 
reached  it,  we  found  it  very  unsubstantial;  the  turf, 
which  was  saniratcd  with  water,  yielding  under  our 
feet  with  a  rocking  motion.  The  lodge  was  situated 
upon  the  edge  of  the  island,  and  was  girded  around 
with  a  moac  or  trench  about  three  feet  wide,  and  from 
three  to  four  feet  deep,  which  opened  out  into  the  pond 
at  the  outer  edge  of  the  lodge.  Externally  it  was  a 
rounded  and  dome-shaped  mass  of  poles  and  sticks, 
which  were  trimmed  of  their  branches  and  stripped 
of  their  bark,  and  interlaced  much  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  those  upon  the  lower  faces  of  their  dams.  It 
was  oblong  in  form  rather  than  round,  as  will  appear 
by  the  following  measurements : 

From  the  water  level,  on  the  right  in  the  engraTing,  to  the 

water  Ictri  on  the  left,  measured  over  apex  of  lodge 22  ft.  6  inches. 

Width  of  lodge  at  base  or  water  line 16  ■'  4  *' 

From  water  level  in  front,  to  same  on  back  side,  measured 

over  apex  of  lodge 26  "  10  '• 

Width  of  lodge  at  base  or  water  line,  from  front  to  baclc...  19  "  9  " 

Vertical  height  of  lodge  above  water  level 4"  6  " 

We  commenced  opening  it  at  the  top.  A  few  of 
the  poles  on  the  surface  were  loose  and  easily  removed, 
but  at  a  few  inches  below  the  apex  we  found  them  so 

^  The  Ojibwas  call  a  beaver  lodge  wig-encam' ,  which  is  the 
same  word  they  employ  to  designate  their  own  bark  house.  When 
they  make  tbe  distinction,  they  prefix  tbe  word  for  beaver,  ah- 
mick'. 


'   I 


142 


THE   AMKKirAN    UKAVER. 


intorwovon  nnd  itnlMMldod  in  cartli  and  hmm,  that  it 
waM  iiii|)(>S!^il)i(>  to  l()(»Hon  them  with  our  liaiids.  About 
a  loot  Ik'Iow  till'  Hiirfaeo  tlio  walls  wore  sul).stai»tially 
Holid.  With  tlic  aid  of  an  axo,  howevrr,  and  al'tiT  an 
hour's  hard  hihor,  wo  sucwrdod  in  mailing  an  opening 
throuj^ii  the  roof  about  tiiree  fwi  in  diameter,  which 
uncovered  and  disclosed  the  chamber  very  perfectly. 


Fifi.  !t. 


Ground  Plan.     Island  Ludgc. 


(i 


It  is  shown  in  the  annexed  figure  (Fig.  9).  The  roof 
had  settled  down  in  the  centre  from  the  superincum- 
bent weight,  but  not  so  far  as  to  interfere  with  the 


nEAVF.R    LoPfJFS    AND    lURROWS.  113 

nc(Mi!nnu»(ljitit)ns  of  tlio  ciinTnlK>r.     It  liiul  no  Hnp))ort 

uri'lcr  it  of  imv  Uiiul  wlniti'vcr.     Aftrr  n-iuoviii''  tlio 

materials  wlii(;h  hail  fallen  in  from  the  rtnA'  ii|ion  tlio 

floor,  w('  found   the  lattor  hard,  .smooth,  and  dean, 

with  fresh-cut  grass  around  the  outer  horder  for  their 

nests;  thus  showing  that  it  was  an  occupied  lodge. 

In  standing  upon  the  Hoor  of  the  chamber,  the  he(d  of 

n  lM)ot  did  not  indent  the  surface,  although  it  was  hut 

two  inches  above  the  level  of  the  pond.     This  last 

fact  was  shown  by  the  level  ut  which  the  water  stood 

in  the  entrances,  two  in  number,  which  came  through 

the  floor  in  the  outer  edge  of  the  chamber,  as  shown 

in  the  figure. 

MraHurementH. 

T.nngitiulinal  diameter  of  chainbrr 7  ft.  8  iu. 

Transverse 7  " 

Vertical  height 1  ft.  to  1  ft.  4  in. 

Size  of  cntnincos  through  floor 15  in.  square. 

Length  of  each  entrance  respectively 10  and  7  feet. 

The  roof  was  about  three  feet,  and  the  side  walls 
from  four  and  a  half  to  five  and  a  half  feet  thick,  which 
rendered  ^t,  as  a  structure,  both  strong  and  durable. 
Among  the  characteristics  of  the  beaver  is  that  of 
cleanliness  in  his  lodges  and  burrows.  Nothing  ap- 
peared in  this  chamber  to  detract  from  his  reputation 
in  this  respect.  There  was  no  opening  for  light  or 
ventilation;  but  yet,  from  the  porous  nature  of  the 
materials,  as  put  together,  sufficient  air  would  pene- 
trate the  lodge  tiom  without  to  satisfy  the  require- 
ments of  its  occupants,  whose  low  respiration  enables 
them  to  endure  the  confined  atmosphere  of  the  lodge 
and  the  burrow.  In  the  winter  season,  their  breath, 
rising  through  the  top  of  the  lodge,  dissolves  the  snow 
and  forms  a  chimney  opening  over  it,  which  not  only 


144 


THE   AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


continues  their  supplj'  of  air,  but  .also  reveals  their 
habitation  to  the  trapper. 

The  entrances  to  a  beaver  lodge,  of  which  there 
are  usually  two,  and  sometimes  more,  are  the  most 
remarkable  parts  of  the  structure.  They  are  made 
with  great  skill,  and  in  the  most  artistic  manner.  In 
new  lodges  there  is  generally  but  one,  but  others  are 
added  with  their  increase  in  size  under  the  process  of 
repairing,  until,  in  large  lodges,  there  are  sometimes 
three  and  four.  These  entrances  are  of  two  kinds. 
One  is  straight,  or  as  nearly  so  as  possible,  with  its 
floor,  which  is  of  course  under  water,  an  inclined 
plane,  rising  gradually  from  the  bottom  of  the  pond 
into  the  chamber;  while  the  other  is  abrupt  in  its 
descent,  and  often  sinuous  in  its  course.  The  first 
we  shall  call  the  "wood  entrance,"  from  its  evident 
design  to  facilitate  the  admission  into  the  chamber  of 
their  "wood  cuttings,"  upon  which  they  subsist  during 
the  season  of  winter.  These  cuttings,  as  will  else- 
where be  shown,  are  of  such  size  and  length  that 
such  an  entrance  is  absolutely  necessary  for  their  free 
admission  into  the  lodge.  The  other,  which  we  shall 
call  the  "beaver  entrance,"  was  the  ordinary  run-way 
for  their  exit  and  return.  It  is  usually  abrupt,  and 
often  winding  In  the  lodge  under  consideration,  the 
wood  entrance  descended  from  the  outer  rim  of  the 
chamber  outward  about  ten  feet  to  the  bottom  of  the 
pond  in  a  straight  line,  and  upon  an  inclined  plane ; 
while  the  other,  emerging  from  the  rim  of  the 
chamber  at  the  side,  descended  quite  abruptly  to  the 
bottom  of  the  moat  or  trench,  through  which  the 
beavers  must  pass,  in  open  water,  out  into  the  pond. 
Both  entrances  were  rudely  arched  over  with  a  roof 


BEAVER    LODGES    AND    ni'HUOWS. 


n. 


of  interlaced  stiv.'ks  filled  in  with  imid  intermixed  with 
vegetable  fibre,  and  were  extended  to  the  bottom  of 
the  pond  and  trench,  Avitli  the  excejition  of  tiie  ojkmi- 
ings  at  their  ends.  At  the  places  where  they  were 
constructed  through  the  floor  they  were  finished  with 
neatness  and  precision;  the  upper  parts  and  sides 
forming  an  arch  more  or  less  regular,  while  the  bottom 
and  floor  edges  were  formed  with  firm  and  compacted 
earth,  in  which  small  sticks  were  imbedded.  It  is 
difficult  to  realize  the  artistic  appearance  of  some  of 
these  entrances  without  actual  inspection. 

These  lodges,  at  first  smjill,  and  with  contracted 
chambers,  are  enlarged,  both  in  external  size  and  in 
internal  accommodation,  by  the  process  of  repairing. 
After  their  winter  cuttings  are  peeled  of  their  bark 
lor  food,  they  are  put  out  of  the  lodge,  and,  in  due 
time,  a  portion  of  them  are  placed  upon  its  roof  to 
supply  the  waste  by  settlement  and  decay.  Late  in 
the  fall,  each  season,  the  sides  of  their  lodges,  nearly 
to  the  summits,  are,  in  some  cases,  plastered  over  with 
mud,  which,  soon  freezing,  materially  increases  their 
strength.  The  decayed  portion  of  the  walls  and  roof 
which  form  the  chamber  within  are,  from  time  to 
time,  removed,  which  gradually  increases  its  size.  By 
the  two  processes  of  external  addition  and  internal 
enlargement,  continued  through  a  series  of  years,  a 
lodge  is  finally  produced  of  the  size  represented  in  the 
engraving.  The  quantity  of  sticks,  poles,  and  billets 
of  wood  used  in  its  construction  was  about  a  cord. 

It  has  elsewher3  been  stated  that  the  entrances  of 
these  lodges  were  from  two  to  three  feet  below  the 
surface  of  the  water  in  all  cases,  and  that  in  this 
lodge  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  pond  stood  within 

10 


14G 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


f! 


two  inches  of  the  floor  of  the  chamber.  In  every 
lodge  opened  I  have  found  the  floor  but  a  few  inches, 
usually  from  two  to  six,  above  the  level  of  the  water. 
The  nearer  the  two  to  the  same  level,  the  easier  the 
introduction  of  their  cuttings,  which  must  b*^  dragged 
in  with  their  teeth  at  no  small  exertion  of  strength. 
From  the  uniform  relation  found  to  subsist  between  the 
level  of  the  floor  and  of  the  pond,  it  is  evident  that  the 
beavers  regulate  the  discharge  of  the  surplus  Avater 
through  their  dams  with  a  view  to  the  maintenance, 
as  near  as  possible,  of  a  uniform  level  of  the  pond. 
Any  great  variation,  in  this  respect,  would  either 
flood  their  habitations  or  expose  their  entrances;  and 
therefore  the  maintenance  of  their  dams  becomes  a 
matter  of  constant  supervision  and  perpetual  labor. 
We  discover  also  a  reason  why  their  principal  repairs, 
both  of  their  dams  and  lodges,  are  deferred  to  the  last 
moment  before  going  into  winter  quarters;  since  their 
comfort  and  security  are  involved  particularly  in  the 
stability  of  their  dams,  which  for  months  together, 
during  the  winter,  are  beyond  their  control.  In 
choosing  the  sites  of  their  lodges,  so  as  to  be  assured 
of  water  in  their  entrances  and  at  their  places  ol 
exit,  too  deep  to  be  frozen  to  the  bottom;  in  the  ad- 
justment of  the  floors  of  their  chambers  to  the  level 
of  the  ponds;  and  in  their  appreciation  of  the  causes 
of  a  change  of  level  in  these  ponds,  as  well  as  of  t'le 
remedy,  decisive  evidence  seems  to  be  furnished  of 
their  possession  of  a  free  intellujence,  as  well  as  of 
constructive  skill. 

One  other  circumstance  remains  to  be  mentioned 
with  reference  to  this  lodge.  It  was  opened  and 
measured,  as  before  stated,  in  1860.     The  following 


UKAVKU    LODGES    AND    lU'HKOWS. 


ir 


year,  while  going  again  to  Grass  Lake  dam  lor  the 
[)ur|)oso  of  obtaining  a  photograph  of  the  saino,  I  re- 
gretted the  destruction  of  the  lodge,  of  which  a  repre- 
sentation was  not  less  desirable  than  of  the  datn.  On 
reaching  the  lake,  I  was  both  surpri>-ed  and  grtitilied 
to  find  that  the  lodge  had  been  completely  restored 
by  the  beavers;  and  the  engraving  (Plate  XIII.)  shows 
tho  lodge  as  it  appeared  after  it  had  once  been  par- 
tially destroyed,  and  again  repaired,  in  the  maimer 
stated. 

Fio.  10. 


Iiiland  Lodge.     Side  view. 

In  this  figure  of  the  lodge  (Fig.  10),  which  was 
taken  from  the  island,  its  long  side  is  shown,  together 
with  the  moat  by  which  it  is  surrounded.  The  two 
engravings  together  represent  a  beaver  lodge  so  faith- 
fully and  completely  as  to  render  unnecessary  any 
further  description  of  their  external  appearance.  Both 
engravings  were  made  from  photographs  of  the  orig- 
inal. 

The  number  of  lodges  upon  the  largest  ponds  rarely 
exceeds  four.  In  some  instances  six  and  eight  tiave 
been  found.    Upon  Grass  Lake,  as  before  stated,  there 


Pi 


148 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


ii 


^ii 


are  but  two.  botli  of  whioh  arc  upon  grass  islands 
within  tho  pond.     There  are  none  upon  its  banks. 

Another,  and  e(jually  common  variety  may  be  called, 
by  way  of  distinction,  the  bank  lodge.  They  are  of 
two  kinds.  One  is  situated  upon  the  bank  of  the 
stream  or  pond,  a  few  feet  back  from  its  edge,  and  en- 
tered by  an  underground  passage  from  the  bed  of  the 
stream,  excavated  through  the  natural  earth  up  into 
the  chamber.  The  other  is  situated  upon  the  edge  of 
the  l)ank,  a  portion  of  it  projecting  over,  and  resting 
upon  the  bed  of  the  channel,  so  as  to  have  the  floor 
of  the  chamber  rest  upon  the  bank  or  on  solid  ground, 
while  the  external  wall,  on  the  pond  side,  projects 
beyond  it,  and  is  bailt  up  from  the  bottom  of  the  pond. 
There  is  a  lodge  of  this  description  near  dam  No.  14 
represented  in  Plate  IX.  Originally  it  was  a  fine 
lodge;  but  when  I  opened  and  measured  it,  in  1860, 
it  had  been  deserted  for  two  or  three  years,  and 
had  fallen  into  decay.  A  ground  plan  is  given  in 
Figure  11.  One-fourth  part  of  it,  which  represents 
the  thickness  of  the  external  wall,  projects  beyond  the 
bank  into  the  river,  while  the  remainder,  which  in- 
cluded the  whole  of  the  chamber,  was  upon  the  land. 
It  was  constructed  in  the  same  manner,  and  presented 
the  same  general  appearance,  as  the  one  last  described. 

3Ieasurementii. 

Height  of  lodge,  on  river  side,  from  bed  of  channel.  6  ft.  G  inches. 

Height  on  land  side 3  ft.  6     " 

irameter  on  base  line,  on  level  of  bank 12  ft. 

■i'iT.r'jver''e  diimelfcr 14  ft. 

DiituifU'v  ".  chaP;!'  n" 6  ft. 

Heighi    >   I  bamber  from  floor  of  lodge 2  ft.  6  inches. 

Fciph;  '~<'<io.- abn-r  level  of  pond  w'len  full 8     " 

c''i2.9  01  ontrtifiiTs  i,.»' u^h  flu  jr..   ..    15    "    square. 

'  Iiid.-.viijs '>f  wiiih  au*'.  i'oof. 3  ft.  to  3  fi.  Cinches. 


BEAVER   LODGES   AND   BURHOWS. 


149 


The  floor  of  the  chamber  was  hard,  level,  aiul 
clean,  with  small  quantities  of  dried  grass  scatt(Mvd 
here  and  there,  but  much  decayed;  showing  tiiat  the 
lodge  had  been  for  some  time  deserted.  At  the  two 
points  where  the  walls  of  the  lodge  intersect  the 
banks  were  the  entrances.     As  the  dam  had  been  cut 

Fio.  n. 


Bank  Lodge.     Ground  Plan. 

through  and  the  river  dra^vn  down  nearly  to  its  orig- 
inal level,  an  excellent  opportunity  was  afforded  to 
examine  these  entrances  where  they  came  through 
into  the  chamber,  and  also  the  arched  way  which  led 
down  to  the  bed  of  the  stream.  The  upper  one  was 
the  wood  entrance,  or,  at  least,  the  most  convenient 
for  that  purpose;  although  both  were  nearly  straigh 
with  a  gradual  descent,  and  surprisingly  well  con- 
structed. The  edges  or  rims  of  these  passages,  where 
they  entered  the  chamber,  were  as  hard,  smf)oth,  and 
regular  as  if  fniished  with  a  mason's  trowel;  the 
covered  way  over  each  was  constructed  with  a  mass 


E^i 


I     i 


1.10 


THE    AMEUrCAN    BEAVER, 


of  interlaced  sticks,  filled  in  with  loam,  and  forming 
a  perlect  roof;  and  the  bed  of  each  passage-way  was 
composed  of  earth,  made  solid  by  imlxidded  sticks, 
and  graded  with  a  regnlar  descent.  There  is  nothing 
— 1  re[)eat  the  statement — connected  with  the  lodge 
which  excites  so  much  astonishment  as  the  mechan- 
ical skill  displayed  in  the  construction  of  these  en- 
trances,' 

In  lodges  situated  like  this  the  entrances  are  called 
thi^  ■•  angles"  by  the  traj)[)ers.  These  angles  had  been 
"staked  out,"  to  use  the  phrase  of  the  trappers,  some 
years  before,  and  the  stakes  still  remained.  Two 
rows  led  up  to  each  eiitrance,  and  were  thus  driven 
ill  for  the  purpose  of  compelling  the  beavers,  on  en- 
tering the  lod;_e,  to  pass  through  a  narrow  '»vi>y;  within 
which  the  traps  were  to  he  set  for  their  capture. 
This  is  the  usurl  method  of  trapping  beavers  at  the 
lodge. 

A  beaver  lodge,  from  its  dome-shaped  form,  makes 
a  very  conspicuous  appeararice,  particularly  when  it 
is  symmetrically  for'ned  and  in  perfect  repair.  But 
they  are  neither  as  high  nor  as  narrow  at  the  base  as 
they  have  been  usually  represented;  and  the  greater 
proportion  of  theni  are  much  inferior  to  those  de- 
scribed. 

liodges  are  more  frequently  situated  a  few  feet 
back  from  the  edge  of  tho  bank  than  in  any  other 
position.  They  are  erected  and  maintained  with  less 
labor,  but  they  are  usually  smaller,  and  not  as  con- 
veniently connected  with  the  water  as  the  varieties 

'  They  are  called  Ah-me-ko-ish'  by  the  Ojibwas,  which  signifies 
"  beaver  door-way." 


BANK  LUDGEandBEAYEF   CAXAL 


.«*" 


BEAVKU   LODC.CS   AND   HUHROWS. 


161 


previou.sly  coiiHidcrod.     One  other  hunk  htdiir  only 
will  Ix)  duHcribed,  and  it  will  diflbr  IVoin  the  last  in 
being  situated  wholly  upon  land.     It  is  located  on  ii 
neck  of  huid  formed  hy  a  bend  in  Carp  Kivor  belov 
dam  No.  50,  and  Is  shown  in  Plate  XIV. 

Across  the  neck  a  beaver  canal  liad  been  cut,  about 
five  feet  wide  on  an  average,  and  three  feet  dcej),  at 
one  of  the  junctions  of  which  with  the  river  the 
lodge  is  situated.  The  river  here  passes  through  low 
and  swampy  ground,  and  is  broad  and  sluggish.  At 
high  water  there  would  be  a  current  through  the 
canal  but  for  a  small  dam  thrown  across  in  front  of 
the  lodge,  by  which  it  is  prevented.  The  difference 
of  level  in  the  river  at  the  two  ends  of  the  canal  can- 
not exceed  an  inch.  In  a  subsequent  chapter  the 
nature  and  uses  of  the  canals,  which  have  occasionally 
been  referred  to,  will  be  considered. 

To  reach  this  lodge  we  descended  the  river  in  a 
boat.'  It  was  opened  and  measured  in  September, 
1862;  it  was  of  ordinary  size  and  appearance,  and 
gave  the  following  external  measurements: 

From  base,  measured  over  apex,  and  parallel  with  canal.  10  feet  2  inches. 

Diameter  at  baseline 10  •' 

From  base  over  apex  at  right  angles  with  canal 14  "    9  inches. 

Diameter  at  base  line 10  " 

Vertical  height  of  lodge  above  level  of  ground 3  " 

Height  of  ground  above  level  of  river 10  inches. 

On  the  top  of  the  lodge  we  found  about  three  arrn- 
fuls  of  the  cuttings,  of  the  previous  fall,  which  had 
been  denuded  of  bark  and  distributed  irregularly  over 
its  roof.     Having  removed  the  loose  sticks  and  poles, 


1  My  estimahU-  friend,  Rev.  Henry  Fowler,  of  Auburn,  N.  Y., 
was  my  comjMiriiou  on  this  occasion. 


152 


TIIK    AMERICAN    HFAVER. 


I 


i  I. 


V: 


I         » 


&       ■ 


I 


V  i 


1   4'  > 


Fio.  12. 


Arraiig«nioiit,  nC  I'olcs  to 
I'urm  lliiof  of  Lotlgu. 


we  came,  at  tlu'  drptli  of  »  few  inclios,  to  a  mass  of 

stickfj  atul  cuttings  of  various 
sizes  imbedded  in  diy  earth  or 
nuu'k,  of  vv'iiicli  the  roof  was  com- 
posed. When  these  materials  had 
been  removed  and  the  chamber 
uncovered,  we  found  the  roof  very 
cleverly  supported  by  three  poles, 
as  shown  in  the  diagram  (Fig.  12). 
No.  1  was  G  feet  11  inches 
long,  about  2  inches  thick,  and 
extended  entirely  across  the  chamber  into  the  walls 
on  either  side.  No,  2  was  4  feet  3  inches  long,  about 
2i  inches  thick,  and  rested  upon  the  wall  and  also 
upon  \)o\(i  No  1.  And  No.  2  was  4  feet  long,  of  the 
same  thickness,  and  rested  the  one  end  upon  the 
wall  and  the  other  upon  No.  2.  Upon  these  was 
a  network  of  smaller  poles  and  sticks  filled  in  with 
muck.  Tlie  three  principal  poles  formed  a  perfect  and 
well-contrived  support  for  the  roof.  Whether  this  was 
a  new  or  an  old  lodge  we  had  no  means  of  ascertain- 
ing; and,  therefore,  it  did  not  necessarily  follow  that 
they  were  so  arranged  by  design.  If  an  old  lodge, 
these  poles  were  probably  once  upon  the  top,  and  had 
come  into  their  present  position  by  the  gradual  pro- 
gress of  the  settlement  and  decay  of  the  materials 
underneath,  which  was  followed  by  their  removal  from 
the  roof  of  the  chamber  within  as  it  was  built  upon 
above.  The  magnitude  of  the  canal  is  an  evidence 
of  its  great  age,  but  this  again  is  no  evidence  of  the 
age  of  the  lodge,  w  hicli  may  have  been  erected  after 
the  latter  was  excavated.  An  examination  of  beaver 
lodges  shows  quite  ciearly  that  they  can  be  continued 


nKAVKR  i.(>Dr,F,s  A\r>  luiniows. 


153 


for  fentiirics  by  the  simple  piorc-.s.  ivpairiiiir.  Sucii 
is  (loulitli'SH  tlu'ir  history.  New  loilui'S  would  he  de- 
rniinded  with  an  iiieiviise  in  imiiihers  up  to  ii  eertaiu 
limit,  hut  otherwise  they  would  not,  in  nil  prohahility, 
he  ccmstructed. 

Around  the  outer  rim  of  the  chamher  [V'l'i.  18) 
there  was  fresh  dry  iJtrass  for  beds,  which  had  evitUnitly 
been  recently  cut  from  the  meadows.  In  the  (HMitre 
of  the  floor  there  was  a  large  quantity  of  old  and  de- 
cayed jiijrass,  damp  and  wet,  on  the  removal  of  which 
a  considerable  depression  of  the  floor  was  observable. 


Oround  Plan  of  Loilge 

The  above  diagram  shows  the  chamber  and  the 
position  of  the  entrances. 

Mcasiu'cments. 

Diameter  of  chamber  parallel  with  canal G  feet  5  inches. 

Transverse  diameter G     " 

Height  of  chamber  at  centre 1  foot  0  inches. 

Level  of  floor  below  ground 0     " 

Height  of  floor  above  water  in  entrances 4     " 

For  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  nature  of  the 
floor  we  made  an  excavation,  1  foot  and  9  inches  deep, 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


I.I 


IM    12.5 


UiUii 


■  2.2 
^   U^    12.0 


M  IIIIM 11^ 

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6"     

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Hiotogra{iric 

Sciences 

Corporation 


33  WIST  MAIN  STRKT 

WIBSTU.N.Y.  14SS0 

(716)t72-4S03 


4 


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^ 


154 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


Itl 


through  a  mass  of  small  beaver  cuttings  imbedded  in 
loam,  of  which  it  was  composed,  before  we  came  to  clear 
earth.  They  were  mere  twigs  a  few  inches  long  and  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  packed  down  in  a 
solid  mass.  As  the  floors  of  beaver  lodges  are  usually 
but  three  or  four  inches  above  the  level  of  the  water, 
and  so  near  it  as  to  become  thoroughly  saturated,  it 
is  extremely  probable  that  they  are,  in  all  cases,  made 
firm  and  solid  in  this  way,  partly  by  accident  and 
partly  by  design.  Without  some  such  solidifying 
process  these  floors  would  soon  turn  into  soft  mire, 
and  the  chambers  become  uninhabitable. 

The  two  entrances,  as  in  the  other  cases,  were  the 
most  interesting  portions  of  the  structure.  One  en- 
tered the  canal,  and  from  thence  the  river  to  go  up 
stream;  the  other  the  river  direct  for  going  down 
stream.  The  former  was  nearly  straight,  with  its 
bottom  out  to  the  canal  a  gentle  slope;  while  the  other 
descended  quite  abruptly  as  it  emerged  from  the  lodge, 
and  then  turning  to  the  left,  nearly  at  right  angles,  ran 
straight  to  the  river.  Both  were  neatly  constructed, 
but  one  only,  that  which  terminated  in  the  canal, 
was  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  a  wood  entrance.  We 
were  able  to  run  a  pole  through  this  passage  from  the 
point  where  it  entered  the  chamber  out  into  the  canal, 
and  obtain  its  length,  together  with  its  other  dimen- 
sions, which  were  as  follows : 

Measurements  of  Wood  Entrance. 

Length  of  passage  from  rim  of  chamber  to  caual 7  feet  11  inches. 

Width  of  same  where  it  entered  chamber 2    "     1  " 

Width  throughout  to  the  canal,  about 2    " 

Depth  of  water  in  entrance  just  without  chamber 11^  " 

Roof  of  entrance  above  level  of  water,  at  same  point 1  foot  5  *' 

Total  height  of  entrance  at  same  point 1     "    7^  " 

Depth  of  soil  and  roots  above  passag 3  without  lodge 1     "    3  " 


BEAVER   LODGES   AND   BURROWS. 


155 


The  roof  of  the  passage-way  within  the  walls  of 
the  lodge,  and  for  a  short  distance  without,  was 
rounded  or  arched  quite  regularly,  and  constructed 
with  sticks;  but  for  the  remainder  of  the  way  to  the 
canal  it  was  ground  excavation,  the  roof  being 
strengthened  by  the  roots  of  alder  bushes  under 
which  it  ran.  After  leaving  the  chamber,  the  roof 
of  the  passage-way  descended  so  as  to  intersect  the 
water  at  a  distance  of  3i  feet,  after  which  the  pas- 
sage was  full  of  water  out  to  the  canal,  which  it  en- 
tered 3  feet  below  the  surface.  The  floor  of  the  en- 
trance or  passage-way,  just  out  of  the  chamber  of  the 
lodge,  was  sprinkled  over  with  short  and  slender 
twigs  of  willow,  about  6  inches  long  and  I  of  an  inch 
thick,  which  were  evidently  designed  for  young  beavers. 
They  were  green  and  fresh  cuttings,  some  of  them 
peeled  of  their  bark  and  thrown  out  of  the  chamber, 
and  others  with  the  bark  on  ready  for  use.  I  made 
a  small  bundle  of  these  tit-bits  for  young  beavers,  and 
preserved  them  as  a  memorial  of  this  lodge. 

The  other,  or  beaver  entrance,  opened  out  from  the 
chamber  on  the  canal  side,  and,  after  descending  for 
a  short  distance,  turned  abruptly  to  the  left,  after 
which  it  ran  under  ground  nearly  in  a  straight  line 
to  the  river,  as  before  stated. 

Measurements  of -Beaver  Entrance. 

Width  at  edge  of  chamber... 1  foot  8  inches. 

Depth  of  water  in  same,  at  ditto 10      " 

Height  of  entrance  above  water 6      " 

Total  height  from  bottom  to  roof  of  entrance 1  foot  4      " 

Length  of  passage-way 11  feet  6      " 

Short  cuttings  might  have  been  carried  into  the 
chamber  through  this  passage,  but  not  those  of  any 


156 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


length.  Besides  this,  as  they  almost  invariably  trans- 
port their  cuttings  down  stream,  the  other,  from  its 
location,  was  the  proper  wood  entrance.  As  the  river 
was  too  shallow,  on  the  lodge  side,  for  their  conceal- 
ment, the  beavers  had  excavated  a  channel,  about  2 
feet  deep,  in  its  bed  for  a  distance  of  25  feet  out  into 
Jeep  water.  The  artificial  character  of  this  channel 
was  perfectly  manifest. 

We  piled  up  the  sticks  and  poles  taken  from  this 
lodge,  and  estimated  the  contents  at  half  a  cord.  It 
was  of  the  average  size,  and  a  fair  specimen  of  these 
structures. 

With  the  minute  description,  now  concluded,  of 
island  and  bank  lodges,  it  will  be  unnecessary  to 
enter  into  details  with  reference  to  other  varieties, 
e.Kcept  to  point  out  differences  where  they  exist. 

Fro.  14. 


Lake  Lodge.     Ground  Plan. 


It  has  elsewhere  been  stated  that  beavers  inhabit 
the  small  lakes  as  well  as  the  flowing  streams.  They 
construct  lodges  upon  their  shores,  which,  as  they  are 
usually  shelving  and  have  a  hard  bottom,  render 
some  further  variation  in  structure  necessary.  The 
lodge  represented  in  the  above  ground  plan  (Fig.  14)  is 
situated  upon  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Diamond,  a  few 


BEAVER   LODGES   AND   BURROWS. 


157 


rods  above  its  outlet.  Two-thirds  of  it  were  built  out 
upon  the  lake  for  the  obvious  purpose  of  covering  the 
entrance  as  well  as  for  its  extension  into  deep  water. 
It  measured,  on  the  line  of  the  shore,  seventeen  feet 
over  its  summit,  and  twenty-four  feet  in  the  trans- 
verse direction,  and  was  three  ieet  and  a  half  high. 
The  chamber  was  between  the  five  trees  which  were 
growing  through  the  lodge  and  connected  with  the 
lake  by  a  long  passage-way  within  the  lodge.  It 
was  constructed  of  sticks  and  poles  in  the  usual  man- 
ner. A  few  rods  above  there  was  another  lodge  built 
out  upon  the  water  in  the  same  way  and  for  the  same 
object.  Similar  lodges  are  found  upon  the  shores  of 
most  of  the  lakes  within  the  area  embraced  by  the 
map.  They  are  chiefly  interesting  as  illustrations 
of  their  capacity  to  vary  the  mode  of  construction 
of  their  lodges  in  accordance  with  the  changes  of 
situation. 

The  finest  lodge  I  have  seen  was  upon  a  grass  island 
in  Lake  Flora.  It  was  remarkable  for  its  regular 
and  symmetrical  proportions.  Externally  it  was  a 
mass  of  naked  poles  and  sticks,  rather  conical  than 
dome-shaped,  four  feet  high  and  sixteen  feet  over  the 
apex.  Its  base  was  smaller  than  usual,  relatively  to 
its  height.  This  lodge  was  the  habitation  of  the 
beaver  whose  skeleton  is  represented  in  Plate  III.  I 
first  saw  it  in  1862.  In  1865  I  went  again  to  see  it 
with  the  intention  of  obtaining  a  photograph,  but 
fopnd  it  deserted  and  going  to  decay. 

Beavers  are  found  upon  the  Missouri  River  from 
the  mountains  down  to  the  mouth  of  the  Big  Sioux, 
along  a  distance  of  more  than  fifteen  hundred  miles, 
although  the  signs  of  their  presence  are  not  abundant 


158 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


below  the  Yellowstone.  Above  the  mouth  of  the  last 
named  river  their  tree  cuttings  are  seen  in  great  num- 
bers on  the  banks  at  intervals  all  the  way  to  the 


Fio.  15. 


False  Lodge,  Upper  Missouri. 

mountains,  with  the  exception  of  the  district  known 
as  the  Bad  Lands.  They  live  in  burrows  in  the  banks, 
but  protect  the  entrances  to  them  by  a  false  lodge,  as 
shown  in  the  figure.  After  the  river  has  subsided  to 
its  lowest  level,  which  is  shortly  after  the  first  of 
September,  they  construct  a  lodge  upon  the  bed  of 
the  river  and  against  its  vertical  bank.  It  is  built  of 
sticks  and  poles  of  willow  and  cotton-wood,  in  the 
precise  manner  of  the  lodges  described,  without  being 
intended  for  a  residence,  but  instead  of  that,  as  a  pro- 
tection to  the  entrance  to  their  burrow,  which  rises 
from  under  this  lodge  back  into  the  bank  and  well  up 
toward  the  surface,  where  the  chamber  or  burrow  is 
excavated.  The  materials  used  in  the  construction 
of  this  lodge  furnish  undoubtedly  a  portion  of  their 
supply  of  wiiiver  wood,  as  well  as  a  lodgment  for 
their  short  cuttings  for  the  same  purpose.  With 
the  spring  rise  in  the  river  most  of  these  lodges 
are  swept  away;  but  as  the  entrances  to  their  bur- 


BEAVER   LODGES   AND   BURROWS. 


159 


rows  are  then  deep  below  the  surface  of  the  water, 
the  security  of  their  habitations  is  not  endangered 
until  the  river  again  subsides  in  the  fall,  when 
they  are  again  reconstructed.  I  saw  a  number  of 
these  lodges  between  the  Yellowstone  River  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  in  June,  18G2,  which  had  with* 
stood  the  great  freshet  of  that  year;  and  made  the 
above  sketch  of  one  of  them.  The  entrances  or  pas- 
sage-ways often  extend  back  twenty  feet  into  the 
bank,  and  each  communicates  with  one  or  more  under- 
ground chambers  which  are  always  found  near  the 
surface.  Trappers  who  have  opened  them  describe 
the  chambers  as  small,  but  neatly  formed  and  clean. 
Lodges  are  occasionally  seen  upon  the  river  banks  and 
upon  the  bottom  lands,  but  from  the  extent  of  the 
cutting  among  the  cottonwood-trees,  which  sometimes 
lay  in  piles  upon  each  other,  it  is  evident  that  most 
of  the  beavers  inhabit  the  river  banks. 

Whether  beaver  lodges  ever  have  more  than  one 
chamber  is  a  question.  It  has  been  stated  that  two 
have  been  found,  in  some  instances,  one  above  the 
other.  I  have  opened  a  large  number  of  these  lodges 
in  dissimilar  situations,  and  never  found  but  one  with 
two  chambers,  and  these  were  upon  the  opposite  sides 
of  a  fallen  tree,  over  which  the  lodge  was  constructed. 
The  chambers  communicated  with  each  other  by 
water,  though  not  directly.  In  some  cases  three  or 
four  lodges  have  been  found  in  a  cluster,  and  so  near 
together  as  to  have  a  common  roof;  on  opening  which 
it  was  ascertained  that  each  had  its  separate  passages 
to  the  water,  and  no  communication  with  +he  others. 
They  were  separate  lodges,  built  side  by  side,  and 
probably  at  diflferent  periods;  and  were  turned  into 


160 


THE   AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


I  Hi 


one  externally  by  the  process  of  repairing  in  the  man- 
ner previously  stated.  Two  or  three  thus  situated 
relatively  are  occasionally  seen  in  the  Lake  Superior 
region.  A  Rocky  Mountain  trapper  informed  me  that 
he  had  opened  a  loJge,  upon  one  of  the  tributaries  of 
the  Missouri,  which  contained  four  chambers,  each 
communicating  with  the  other,  and  with  the  pond, 
and  in  one  of  which  he  found  a  quantity  of  cuttings 
stored  for  winter  use.  The  other  statement  with  ref- 
erence to  lodges  with  two  chambers,  one  above  the 
other,  appears  to  be  without  foundation.  As  a  general 
rule,  the  lodge  has  a  single  chamber,  and  where  two 
or  more  aro  placed  side  by  side,  there  is  no  connec- 
tion between  them. 

In  addition  to  the  lodge,  the  same  beavers,  who  in- 
habit it,  have  burrows  in  the  banks  surrounding  the 
pond.  They  never  risk  their  personal  safety  upon 
the  lodge  alone,  which,  being  conspicuous  to  their 
enemies,  is  liable  to  attack.  These  burrows  are  the 
ultimate  places  of  refuge  to  which  they  are  more  apt 
to  retire  than  to  their  lodges,  when  disturbed  on  the 
land.  Along  their  canals,  also,  the  burrows  are  nu- 
merous, since  while  in  their  narrow  channels  they  are 
more  exposed  than  while  in  the  ponds.  These  bur- 
rows are  small  underground  chambers.  They  are  en- 
tered by  a  passage-way,  usually  under  the  roots  of  a 
tree  standing  in  the  edge  of  a  pond,  which,  with  the 
chamber,  are  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet  in  length.  As 
the  entrances  are  always  below  the  surface  level  of 
the  pondji^  there  are  no  external  indications  to  mark 
the  site  of  a  burrow  except  one,  and  that  occasional 
only,  which  will  be  hereafter  noticed.  A  description 
of  two  or  three  of  these  burrows,  with  diagrams  and 
measurements,  will  illustrate  their  character. 


BEAVER   LODGES   AND   BURROWS. 


101 


This  burrow  (Fig.  16)  is  on  the  east  side  of  the  lake, 
a  few  rods  south  of  the  outlet  of  Lake  Diamond.  There 


Fio.  16. 


Ground  Plnn  of  Beaver  Btirrow  at  Grass  Lake. 

are  two  entrances,  separated  by  a  stone,  and  roofed 
over  with  roots  and  earth.  The  one  upon  the  right 
side  passes  under  the  edge  of  a  rock ;  the  one  on  the 
left,  under  the  roots  of  a  tree;  and  both  are  two  feet 
below  the  surface  of  the  water.  Within  the  distance 
of  fifteen  feet  from  the  pond,  the  bank  rose  about 
seven  feet  above  its  level.  The  burrow  rose  also  with 
the  bank,  so  that  at  the  distance  of  eight  feet  from 
its  mouth,  the  roof  of  the  burrow  came  within  six 
inches  of  the  surface  of  the  ground  above,  and  at  its 
extreme  end  within  three  inches,  the  roots  of  the 
overspreading  forest  trees  forming  a  covering  of  suffi- 
cient strength.  It  was  evidently  carried  thus  near 
the  surface  for  the  admission  of  air  through  the 
ground  roof.  The  chamber,  in  its  most  capacious 
portion,  was  a  foot  high  and  twenty  inches  wide. 
With  its  branches  it  would  afford  ample  accommoda- 
tions for  a  beaver  £a,mily.  I  found  it  accidentally  by 
observing  a  small  opening  into  it  at  its  extreme  end, 
which  enabled  me  to  open  the  remainder  of  it  easily 

11 


t 


162 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


for  the  purpoHG  of  measurement.     The  breach  pre- 
viously made  had  destroyed  it  for  beaver  use. 


POND 

Ground  Plan  of  second  Boaver  Burrow  nt  Qrass  Lake. 


i 


III 


About  twenty  feet  above  the  great  dam,  and  upon 
the  south  side  of  the  pond,  is  the  burrow  represented 
in  the  above  figure  (Fig.  17).  It  ascends  with  the 
bank,  which  it  enters  under  the  roots  of  a  tree,  is  ten 
feet  long,  and  has  a  chamber  twenty  inches  in  width 
and  a  foot  high.  It  terminates  under  the  roots  of  a 
pine-tree,  where  its  roof  comes  within  four  inches  of 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  It  is  a  good  specimen  of 
the  ordinary  burrow. 

North  of  the  Cleveland  Mine  there  is  a  natural  pond, 
shown  on  the  map,  which  will  be  more  particularly  de- 
scribed hereafter.  The  canals  which  enter  it  have  a 
number  of  burrows  upon  their  upper  portions,  one  of 
which  is  represented  in  the  figure  (Fig.  18).  This  bur- 
row is  shown  in  Plate  XVIII.,  and  is  the  one  nearest  to 
the  pond.  It  was  found  open  at  the  centre  and  also  at 
the  extreme  end.  The  length  of  the  passage-way  from 
the  canal  was  eleven  feet,  and  this  communicated  with 
a  chamber  three  feet  two  inches  by  two  feet  and  a  half 


BEAYER   LODGES  AND  IIURROWS. 


163 


in  ground  diinenHiouM,  and  al)oiit  ton  inches  \i\\i}\.  The 
roof  of  the  latter  came  near  to  the  Hurface,  and  wan 
formed  chiefly  of  the  roots  of  the  clump  of  trees  under 


Fio.  IR. 


Ground  Plan  of  Burrow  on  UeaTcr  Csnal. 

which  it  was  excavated.  Water  stood  in  the  passage- 
way nearly  to  the  chamber.  It  is  a  fine  specimen  of 
a  burrow. 

Fio.  19. 


Beaver  Burrow.     Orbund  Plaa. 


Burrows  are  often  found  excavated  under  fallen 
trees  when  lying  near  the  pond.  The  above  figure 
(Fig.  19)  shows  one  of  this  description  near  dam 
No.  14.    A  canal  about  ten  feet  long  and  from  three 


104 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


to  four  wide,  leftdw  up  to  the  r(X)tM  of  a  tree,  back  of 
which  are  two  logs.  The  burrow  wan  excavated  under 
thene  fallen  trees,  which  were  much  decayed,  and  the 
entrance  to  it  was  under  the  nwts  of  the  tree  in  front 
of  them.  No  further  description  is  necessary;  and 
this,  with  the  foregoing  illustrations,  sufficiently  pre- 
sent the  subject  of  burrows.  The  necessity  for  pro- 
tecting the  entrances  to  these  burrows  by  a  sufficient 
depth  of  water  in  the  pond  to  cover  them,  illustrates 
still  further  the  uses  of  the  dam  and  the  imi)ortance 
of  nuiintaining  the  pond  at  a  uniform  level. 
.  The  small  number  of  lodges  found  upon  the  largest 
ponds,  and  tlie  large  number  of  burrows,  renders 
it  probable  that  there  arc  more  beavers  in  every 
pond  thon  the  lodges  can  accommodate;  ond  yet  it  is 
difficult  to  ascertain  the  truth  of  the  matter.  The 
lodges  are  undoubtedly  warmer  in  the  summer  than 
the  burrows,  and  therefore  better  adapted  to  the  rear- 
ing of  their  young.  If  this  use  determined  the  num- 
ber, then  the  lodges  would  show  the  number  of  fami- 
lies inhabiting  the  pond.  Beavers  without  mates,  or 
who  have  lost  their  mates,  would,  in  all  probability, 
lead  solitary  lives  in  burrows;  and  these,  with  the 
full  families  in  the  several  lodges  would,  most  likely, 
represent  the  number  of  beavers  in  each  pond.  At 
all  events,  the  trappers,  whose  rules  are  founded  upon 
experience  and  observation,  estimate  the  number  of 
beavers  in  each  pond  by  the  number  of  lodges,  reck- 
oning eight  to  the  lodge  in  the  Rocky  Mountain 
region,  and  seven  in  that  of  Lake  Superior. 

In  the  Cascade  Mountains,  the  beavers  live  chiefly 
in  burrows  in  the  banks  of  the  streams,  rarely  con- 
structing either  lodges  or  dams.  Upon  this  subject, 
Dr.  Newberry,  in  his  report  on  the  Zoology  of  Oregon 


IIEAVER   LODGES   AND   BURROWS. 


ig:. 


and  California,  remarks:  "The  Hides  of  these  streams 
are  lined  with  their  habitations,  thou^di  we  never  saw 
their  houses,  and  seldom  a  dam;  hut  usually  their 
burrows  penetrated  the  sides  of  the  streams,  a  sufli- 
eiently  large  and  long  excavation  being  made  to  form 
warm,  roomy,  and  comfortable  quarters.  We  found 
the  beavers  in  numbers,  of  which,  when  applii'd  to 
beavers,  I  had  no  conception."' 

The  burrows  of  beavers  inhabiting  river  banks  are 
said  to  be  occasionally  detected  by  a  small  pile  of 
beaver  cuttings  found  heaped  up  in  a  rounded  pile,  a 
foot  or  more  high,  at  the  extreme  end  of  each  burrow. 
It  is  affirmed  by  the  trappers,  and  with  some  show  of 
probability,  that  this  is  a  contrivance  of  the  beavers 
to  keep  the  snow  loose  over  the  ends  of  their  burrows, 
in  the  winter  season,  for  the  admission  of  air.  I  have 
never  seen  these  miniature  lodges,  and  therefore  can- 
not confirm  the  statement,  either  as  to  their  existence 
or  use ;  but  if,  in  fact,  they  resort  to  this  expedient, 
it  is  another  reason  for  inferring  that  the  lodge  was 
developed  from  the  burrow  with  the  progress  of  ex- 
perience. It  is  but  a  step  from  such  a  surface-pile  of 
sticks  to  a  lodge,  with  its  chamber  above  ground,  with 
the  previous  burrow  as  its  entrance  from  the  pond.'  A 
burrow  accidentally  broken  through  at  the  upper  end, 
and  repaired  with  a  covering  of  sticks  and  earth  would 
lead  to  a  lodge  above  ground,  and  thus  inaugurate  a 
beaver  lodge  out  of  a  broken  burrow. 

'  Explorations  for  a  Railroad  Route,  etc.  to  the  Pacific.  VI. 
Zoology,  258. 

'  The  Ojibwaa  call  a  burrow  0-wazhe,  whence  the  name 
"wash,"  commonly  used  by  the  trappers  to  denote  a  beaver 
burrow. 


I 


CHAPTER  VI. 

SUBSISTENCE  OF  BEAVERS. 

Subsistence  exolusively  Vegetable — Kinds  of  Baric  preferred — Roots  of 
Plants — Incisive  Teeth  Chisels — Their  cutting  Power — It  diminishes  with 
Age — Provisions  for  Winter — Season  for  collecting — Falling  Trees — 
Their  siio — Number  of  Beavers  engaged — Manner  of  cutting — Chips — 
Short  Cuttings — Moving  them  on  Land — Floating  them  in  Water — Sink- 
ing them  in  Piles — Wood-eating — Evidence  that  they  eat  Clear  Wood — 
Brush-heap  at  Lodge  restricted  to  Particular  Places — Their  Use — Ponds 
in  V/inter — Winter  Life  of  Beavers. 

The  nutriment  of  the  beaver  is  drawn  exclusively 
from  the  vegetable  kingdom.  They  subsist  princi- 
pally upon  the  bark  of  deciduous  trees.  Where  the 
variety  is  large,  they  prefer,  as  is  shown  by  their  cut- 
tings, yellow  birch,  cotton-wood,  poplar,  and  willow. 
These  are  their  chief  reliance.  They  also  eat  the 
bark  of  the  soft  and  bird's-eye  maple,  of  the  walnut, 
and  of  the  black  and  white  ash,  together  with  various 
kinds  of  roots,  such  as  those  of  the  pond  lily,  and  of 
the  coarse  grasses  that  grow  in  the  margins  of  their 
ponds.  Late  in  the  winter  they  eat  clear  wood,  and 
such  roots  as  they  can  reach  from  their  burrows  or 
find  in  the  banks.  This  subject  of  wood  eating  will 
be  referred  to  again.  In  the  summer  they  rarely  cut 
large  trees,  but  live  upon  the  bark  of  the  smaller  ones, 
upon  willow  and  raspberry  bushes,  and  upon  different 
kinds  of  roots.  Notwithstanding  the  great  abund- 
ance of  food  at  this  season  of  the  year,  they  are  usu- 
ally the  fattest  in  the  winter. 
(166) 


SUBSISTENCE  OF   BEAVERS. 


167 


As  cutting  instruments,  they  are  armed  with  power- 
ful incisive  teeth,  by  means  of  which  they  are  able  to 
cut  down  forest  trees  of  surprising  size  in  comparison 
with  their  own  diminutive  forms.  Their  teeth  are 
chisels  in  form  and  structure,  and  also  in  efficiency. 
When  at  the  age  of  eighteen  months,  and  from  that 
on  to  two  and  three  years  old,  their  teeth,  which 
during  thesa  periods  are  in  a  rapidly  growing  state, 
are  in  the  best  condition  for  cutting.  After  this,  as 
they  grow  older,  their  teeth  file  down  with  constant 
use,  and  growing  less  rapidly,  become  dull  and  inef- 
ficient in  cutting.  It  is  said  that  the  diminution  of 
cutting  power  is  so  great  that  very  old  beavers  are 
often  unable  to  provide  themselves  with  food  suffi- 
cient for  their  sustenance  during  the  winter,  and,  in 
consequence,  become  poor  and  feeble.  A  beaver  of 
this  description  was  caught,  in  the  fall  of  1864,  on 
one  of  the  dams  of  the  Esconauba,  and  upon  being 
shown  to  William  Bass  (Ah-sh^-gos),  an  Ojibwa  trap- 
per extremely  well  versed  in  the  habits  of  the  beaver, 
he  remarked  that,  "had  he  escaped  the  trap,  he  would 
have  been  killed  by  other  beavers,  before  the  winter 
closed,  for  stealing  cuttings."  Such  beavers  are  often 
found  dead,  with  gashes  in  their  bodies,  showing  that 
they  had  been  attacked  by  their  associates,  which  oc- 
currences the  Indians  explain  in  this  way. 

The  thick  bark  upon  the  trunks  of  large  trees,  and 
even  upon  those  of  medium  size,  is  unsuitable  for 
food;  but  the  smaller  limbs,  the  bark  of  which  is 
tender  and  nutritious,  afford  the  aliment  which  they 
prefer.  To  cut  down  a  tree,  by  persevering  labor,  in 
order  to  reach  its  limbs  and  branches,  is  of  itself  an 
act  of  intelligence  and   knowledge  of  no  ordinary 


168 


THE   AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


i  >     1 

I 


il  ' 


1 1 


character.  Their  practice  of  cuttinar  down  trees  is 
sufficiently  well  underHtood ;  but  precise  information  is 
desirable  as  to  the  manner  in  which  it  is  done,  the  size 
of  the  trees  felled,  and  the  way  in  which  the  limbs  are 
reduced,  removed,  and  stored  for  winter  use.  These 
topics  will  form  the  subject  of  the  present  chapter. 

As  beavers  do  not  hibernate,  they  are  compelled  to 
provide  a  store  of  subsistence  for  the  long  winters  of 
the  North,  during  which  their  ponds  are  frozen  over, 
and  the  danger  of  venturing  upon  the  land  is  so 
largely  increased  as  to  shut  them  up,  for  the  most  part, 
in  their  habitations.  In  preparing  for  the  winter, 
their  greatest  efforts  in  tree  cutting  are  made.  They 
comtnence  in  the  latter  part  of  September,  and  con- 
tinue through  October  and  into  November  the  several 
employments  of  cutting  and  storing  their  winter 
wood,  and  of  repairing  their  lodges  and  dams.  These 
months  are  the  season  of  their  active  labors,  which 
are  only  arrested  by  the  early  snows  and  the  forma- 
tion of  ice  in  their  ponds.  It  is  a  feature  of  the  cli- 
mate of  the  Lake  Superior  region,  and  I  presume  it  is 
equally  true  of  that  around  Hudson's  Bay,  that  the 
snows  begin  to  fall  before  the  frost  has  entered  the 
ground,  whence  it  is,  that  throughout  the  winter  the 
earth  remains  unfrozen,  under  a  deep  covering  of  snow. 
In  this  we  recognize  a  beneficent  provision  of  the  Cre- 
ator for  the  welfare  of  the  burrowing  animals,  without 
which  many  of  them  would  perish.  The  beavers,  as 
has  elsewhere  been  stated,  perform  the  most  of  their 
work  at  night;  but  they  come  out  early  in  the  even- 
ing, and  continue  at  work  during  the  early  morning 
hours.  For  the  remainder  of  the  day  they  are  rarely 
seen,  except  in  regions  where  they  are  very  numer- 


!. : 


SUBSISTENCE  OF   BEAVERS. 


109 


ous,  or  are  entirely  undisturbed  by  trappers.  On  the 
Upper  Missouri  I  liave  seen  them  svvimtning  in  the 
river  in  broad  day,  and  also  basking  in  the  sun  on  the 
tops  of  their  false  lodges  under  the  banks.  We 
brought  down  with  us  a  young  beaver  caught  with  a 
scoop  net,  while  swimming  near  the  river  bank.  In 
the  Lake  Superior  region  I  have  seen  them  generally 
in  the  night,  while  watching  on  their  dams  for  this 
purpose.  By  making  a  breach  in  their  dams  you  can 
compel  them  to  come  out,  but  it  will  be  late  in  the 
night  before  they  show  themselves,  and  they  are  so 
wary  that  it  is  extremely  difficult  so  to  conceal  your- 
self in  their  immediate  vicinity  as  to  see  them  work. 
After  ice  has  formed  in  their  ponds,  they  retire  to 
their  lodges  and  burrows  for  the  winter,  and  they  are 
not  seen  again,  either  by  day  or  night,  except  in  rare 
instances,  until  a  thaw  comes,  of  which  they  take 
advantage  to  come  out  after  fresh  cuttings.  It  is  said 
that  the  bark  of  their  winter  wood  is  apt  to  become 
soft  and  sour  before  spring  from  soakage  in  the  pond, 
wherefore  a  mitigation  of  the  severity  of  the  winter, 
sufficient  to  open  the  ice  in  their  ponds,  is  in  every 
sense  a  providential  relief. 

In  establishing  their  lodges  so  as  to  adapt  them  to 
winter  occupation,  and  in  the  manner  of  providing 
their  winter  subsistence,  the  beavers  display  remark- 
able forethought  and  intelligence.  The  severity  of 
the  climate  in  these  high  northern  latitudes  lays 
upon  them  the  necessity  of  so  locating  their  lodges 
as  to  be  assured  of  water  deep  enough  in  their 
entrances,  and  also  so  protected  in  other  respects,  as 
not  to  freeze  to  the  bottom;  otherwise  they  would 
perish  with  hunger,  locked  up  in  ice-bound  habita^ 


K 


; 


i; !': 
11  f 


%  t! 


Ill :  I! 


I  iii 


170 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


tions.  To  guard  against  this  danger,  the  dam,  also, 
must  be  sufhciently  stable  through  the  winter  to 
maintain  the  water  at  a  constant  level;  and  this 
level,  again,  must  be  so  adjusted  with  reference  to  the 
floor  of  the  lodge  as  to  enable  them,  at  all  times,  to 
take  in  their  cuttings  from  without,  as  they  are 
needed  for  food.  When  they  leave  their  normal  mode 
of  life  in  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  and  undertake  to 
live  in  dependence  upon  artificial  ponds  of  their  own 
formation,  they  are  compelled  to  forecast  the  conse- 
quences of  their  acts  at  the  peril  of  their  lives. 

Before  entering  upon  the  subject  of  tree  cuttings,  it 
may  be  proper  to  make  a  slight  reference  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  forests  in  the  principal  beaver  districts  re- 
ferred to  in  these  pages.  On  the  Upper  Missouri  and 
its  tributaries,  cotton-wood  is  the  prevailing  tree,  and 
willow  the  principal  bush.  In  this  region,  therefore,  as 
their  favorite  subsistence  is  both  abundant  and  conve- 
nient of  access,  beavers  have  been  found  in  the  greatest 
numbers.  Upon  the  Siskatchewun  and  its  affluents, 
the  forest  growth  is  much  the  same,  with  a  limited 
proportion  of  evergreen  trees.  Around  Hudson's  Bay 
and  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior,  the  prevailing  trees 
are  the  tamarack,  the  spruce,  the  hemlock,  and  the 
pine,  but  they  are  interspersed  with  the  birch,  the  pop- 
lar, the  maple,  and  other  deciduous  trees,  and  also 
with  patches  of  willow  upon  the  borders  of  the 
streams;  which  together  furnish  such  an  abundance 
of  subsistence  as  to  render  them  but  little  inferior 
to  the  first  for  beaver  occupation.  The  only  differ- 
ence against  the  latter  is  the  necessity  for  transport- 
ing their  cuttings  over  longer  distances.  In  Cali- 
fornia, Oregon,  Washington,  and  British   Columbia, 


v.r 


-9 


Zfl 


M 


(0 


SUBSISTENCE  OF   BEAVERS. 


171 


while  evergreen  trees  are  the  principal  forest  growth, 
deciduous  tree?  are  sufficiently  abundant  for  all  the 
purposes  of  beavei  maintenance.  There  was  scarcely 
any  portion  of  the  original  forest  area  of  North 
America,  except  the  exclusively  pine  tracts,  where 
beavers  could  not  sustain  themselves  in  considerable 
numbers.  Their  greatest  numbers,  however,  were 
found  in  those  particular  districts  of  country  where 
the  trees,  whose  bark  was  preferred,  were  found  in 
the  greatest  profusion. 

The  engraving  (Plate  XV.  Fig.  1)  is  from  a  photo- 
graph of  an  original  specimen  now  in  my  collection. 
It  was  in  the  process  of  being  cut  down  by  the  beavers 
in  October,  1862,  when  my  attention  was  called  to  it 
by  some  woodmen,  who  had  observed  it  on  the  south 
shore  of  Lake  Flora,  near  dam  No.  2.  I  went  to  the 
place  and  secured  it  before  the  beavers  had  an  oppor- 
tunity to  finish  their  work,  which  another  night  would 
probably  have  consummated,  to  the  destruction  of  the 
symmetry  of  the  cutting.  The  tree  is  a  yellow  birch, 
thirteen  and  a  half  inches  in  diameter  below  the  in- 
cision, and  twelve  inches  above,  with  a  circumference 
of  something  over  three  feet.  As  the  tree  was  green, 
and  this  part  was  removed  before  it  had  been  exposed 
to  the  weather,  the  marks  of  the  teeth  are  seen  with 
entire  distinctness  over  every  part  of  the  cut  surface. 
The  width  of  the  incision  up  and  down  is  eight  inches, 
and  it  was  commenced  seven  inches  above  the  ground. 
It  is  evident  that  the  process  of  cutting  is  round  and 
round  the  tree  continuously,  and  that  the  reduction  is 
uniform  until  it  is  cut  on  all  sides  more  than  half  way 
to  the  centre.  After  that,  the  remainder  of  the  cut- 
ting varies;  in  some  cases  it  is  uniform  until  the  tree 


t 


172 


THE   AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


V   ' 


I 


1^ 


falls,  while  in  others  it  is  the  deepest  on  one  side, 
toward  which  it  is  then  most  likely  to  fall;  and  from 
which  the  inference  is  drawn,  with  some  degree  of 
probability,  that  it  was  the  intention  of  the  beavers 
to  fell  it  in  that  direction.  Where  the  tree  leans 
slightly,  the  deepest  cutting  is  on  the  side  opposite  to 
the  direction  of  its  fall;  and  where  it  stands  upon  a 
side  hill,  it  is  often,  when  the  tree  is  small,  cut  entirely 
upon  the  upper  side.  While  gnawing  down  a  tree, 
they  sit  up  erect  on  their  hind  feet,  which,  being  plan- 
tigrade, renders  this  posture  natural  and  convenient 
for  the  body.  Although  I  have  not  succeeded  in  wit- 
nessing the  act,  on  the  part  of  the  beavers,  of  felling 
a  tree,  I  have  obtained  the  particulars  from  Indians 
and  trappers  who  have.  The  usual  number  engaged 
in  the  work  is  but  two,  or  a  pair;  but  they  are  some- 
times assisted  by  two  or  three  young  beavers.  It 
thus  appears  to  be  the  separate  work  of  a  family, 
insteud  of  the  joint  work  of  several  families.  One 
tree  of  the  size  of  this  would  furnish  a  sufficient 
amount  of  small  cuttings  for  their  winter  supply. 
When  but  two  are  engaged  they  work  by  turns,  and 
alternately  stand  on  the  watch,  as  is  the  well-known 
practice  of  many  animals  while  feeding  or  at  work. 
Wlien  the  tree  begins  to  crackle,  they  desist  from 
cutting,  which  they  afterward  continue  with  cau- 
tion until  it  begins  to  fall,  when  they  plunge  into  the 
pond,  usually,  and  wait  concealed  for  a  time,  as  if 
fearful  that  the  crashing  noise  of  the  tree-fall  might 
attract  some  enemy  to  the  place.  The  next  move- 
ment is  to  cut  oflf  the  limbs,  such  as  are  from  two  to 
five  and  six  inches  in  diameter,  and  reduce  them  to  a 
proper  length  to  be  moved  to  the  water  and  trans- 


SUBSISTENCE  OF    BEAVERS. 


173 


ported  thence  to  the  vicinity  of  their  lodges,  where 
they  are  sunk  in  a  pile  as  their  store  of  winter  pro- 
visions. Upon  this  work  the  whole  family  engage 
with  the  most  persevering  industry,  and  follow  it  up, 
night  after  night,  until  the  work  is  accomplished. 
The  greatest  number  of  beavers  ever  seen  thus  en- 
gaged by  any  of  my  informants  was  nine,  while  the 
usual  number  is  much  less.  These  sc  lewhat  minute 
particulars  are  so  far  important  as  they  tend  to  show 
the  existence  of  the  family  relation,  as  well  as  the 
number  of  the  family;  and  they  also  have  some  bear- 
ing upon  the  question  of  the  recognized  right  of  prop- 
erty in  cuttings.  A  fair  consideration  of  ascertained 
facts  tends  to  the  inference  that  each  family  is  left  to 
the  undisturbed  enjoyment  of  the  fruits  of  their  toil 
and  industry.  The  manner  of  reducing  and  remov- 
ing limbs  of  trees  will  be  further  explained  when  we 
take  up  that  class  of  cuttings. 

Another  and  a  larger  tree  cutting  of  the  kind  above 
described,  I  found  the  present  season  (August,  186G), 
and  sent  it  to  the  Commissioners  of  the  Central  Park, 
New  York.  It  is  a  yellow  birch,  seventeen  inches  in 
diameter  below  the  incision,  fourteen  inches  above, 
and  shows  a  cutting  entirely  around  the  tree  four  and 
a  half  inches  deep.  The  incision  was  not  as  deep 
relatively  as  in  the  other  case;  but  it  removed  the 
whole  of  the  sap-wood  and  a  portion  of  the  duramen. 
It  was  cut  thus  far  in  the  spring  of  the  present  year, 
as  the  tree  was  still  alive  and  in  full  leaf;  and  with- 
out doubt  for  the  purpose  of  eating  the  chips,  as  few 
or  none  were  found  at  the  foot. 

The  second  engraving  (Fig.  2,  Plate  XV.)  is  also 
from  a  photograph  of  an  original  specimen  in  my  col- 


174 


THE   AMERICA^f   BEAVER. 


J 


lection.  Ah  the  tree  lodged  in  falling,  it  did  not  breaic 
at  the  point  where  it  was  cut.  This  tree  was  also  a 
yellow  birch,  and  stood  on  the  border  of  Grass  Lake, 
a  few  rods  above  the  great  dam.  Since  the  deepest 
incision  was  upon  the  pond  side  of  the  tree,  it  seemed 
to  have  been  their  intention  to  fell  it  into  the  pond; 
but  their  expectations  in  this  respect,  if  indulged,  were 
disappointed;  and  further  than  this,  their  labor  was 
lost  by  the  lodgment  of  the  tree.  It  measures  seven- 
teen inches  in  diameter  below  the  incision,  and  ten 
and  a  half  above  it,  with  a  circumference  at  the  place 
where  it  was  made  of  three  feet  four  inches.  The  cut 
was  commenced  six  inches  above  the  ground,  and 
war  .welve  inches  wide  up  and  down  the  trunk  of  the 
tree.  This  tree  cutting  was  two  years  old  when  I 
brought  it  away  in  1861.  It  is  quite  a  common  prac- 
tice with  beavers  to  fell  trees  into  ponds  and  lakes 
for  the  purpose  of  submerging  their  branches,  and 
thus  preserving  them,  with  all  their  small  shoots  and 
twigs,  under  water,  where  they  may  be  accessible 
throughout  the  winter  under  the  ice.  Along  the 
skirts  of  large  ponds,  where  deciduous  trees  are  found 
growing,  numbers  of  trees  thus  fallen  into  the  pond 
are  seen;  their  conical  stubs  showing  quite  plainly  by 
whom  they  were  cut  down.  I  have  a  second  tree 
cutting  precisely  similar  to  this,  the  parts  being  un- 
separated  by  the  fall,  measuring  sixteen  inches  in 
diaraet-er  below  the  incision,  thirteen  above  it,  and 
three  feet  three  inches  in  circumference  at  the  point 
where  the  incision  was  made. 

Beavers  occasionally  cut  the  wild-cherry  tree,  al- 
though it  is  somewhat  doubtful  whether  they  eat  its 
bark.    I  found  one  of  this  description  on  the  tipper 


SUBSISTENXE  OF   BEAVERS. 


175 


part  of  Cnrp  River,  the  pn'sent  Hunimer,  which  menH- 
ured  eighteen  incheH  in  its  grejitest  diameter  helow 
the  incinion,  and  fourteen  above.  They  had  oom- 
menced  and  cut  round  the  tree  in  two  places  higiier 
up,  finally  completing  the  work  at  a  third  and  lower 
place.  It  in  an  interenting  specimen  for  this  retuson, 
although  somewhat  weather-worn,  since  it  shows  the 
appearance  of  a  tree  cutting  at  different  stages  of  its 
depth.  None  of  its  branches  were  either  cut  or  re- 
moved by  the  beavers.  These  rings  show  that  the 
cutting  was  commenced  near  the  close  of  winter,  in 
deep  snow;  and  that  the  deepest  and  lowest  cutting 
was  made  after  the  snows  had  wasted  nearly  to  the 
ground.  As  few  chips  remained,  it  was  evident  that 
the  incision  was  made  for  the  purpose  of  eating  the 
wood.  This  specimen  is  now  in  the  State  Collection 
at  Albany. 

The  foregoing  are  fair  specimens,  as  to  size,  of  the 
tree  cuttings  in  the  Lake  Superior  region,  and  are 
among  the  largest  of  the  hard-wood  trees  usually  cut 
down  by  the  beavers.  I  have  a  number  of  speci- 
mens of  all  sizes  from  six  to  eighteen  inches  in 
diameter,  all  of  which  were  cut  in  the  same  manner, 
and  present  the  same  external  marks  and  conical 
form  at  the  cut  ends.  Those  described  are  not  un- 
usually large.  I  have  seen  many  others  of  equal  size 
at  places  inconvenient  for  removal.  One  yellow  birch 
at  the  head  of  Lake  Flora,  partly  cut  down,  measured 
five  feet  and  four  inches  in  circumference  below  the 
incision,  and  four  feet  and  six  inches  above,  with  but 
nine  inches  in  diameter  at  the  centre  still  uncut. 

The  chips  at  the  foot  of  a  fresh  cut  tree  are  quite 
abundant,  as  well  as  objects  of  curiosity.     I  have 


V''  . 


) 


) 


176 


THB   AMFRICAN    UFAVER. 


an  UHHortnu'iit  of  them,  soiiu*  of  which  incnsiiro  tliroo 
und  a  half  inches  in  k>n^'tii,  from  an  inch  to  an  inch 
and  a  half  in  width,  and  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
in  thickneos. 

Fi<}.  '.'O. 


Beaver  Chip.     Natural  iiixe. 


The  above  representation  (Fig.  20)  shows  the  inner 
face  of  one  of  these  chips.  Upon  the  end  to  the  right 
are  six  distinct  cuts,  the  first  two  of  which  arc  but  half 
the  width  of  a  single  tooth;  while  on  the  other,  which 
is  the  thickest  end,  there  are  eight,  some  of  which  are, 
in  like  manner,  but  half  the  width  of  a  single  tooth.  It 
is  made  evident  by  running  the  inferior  incisive  teeth 
in  a  beaver's  skull  over  these  several  cuts,  that  the 
upper  incisors  are  used  for  holding,  while  the  cutting 
is  done  by  the  inferior;  and  more  than  this,  that  but 
a  single  tooth  is  used  at  a  time,  the  other  following 
in  the  space  made  by  the  previous  bite.  There  is 
another  fact  which  tends  to  confirm  this  explanation 
of  the  manner  of  cutting,  which  is  that  the  chip  is 
split  inward  toward  the  centre  with  each  cut.  If 
both  of  the  inferior  incisors  were  cutting  at  the  same 
time,  the  split  would  occur  with  each  alternate  cut; 
otherwise  one  of  the  teeth  would  be  sprung.  These 
chips  also  show  that  the  gnawing  process  is  one  of 

The  crowning  surface  of 


splitting  as  well  as  cutting. 


SUBSISTENCE  (>K    IJHAVKKS. 


1 


t  t 


tMich  cut  irt  (oiind  to  fit  exnctly  the  slif^lit  ronnivity  ii) 
the  iniuT  HuK'of  tl»o  inciNor.  It  will  IxMjbwrvrd  fnHii 
the  nlopin^r  edges  of  the  chip  that  each  cut  |M'netrate(l 
deeper  than  the  one  preceding  it  an  they  «everally  iiyt- 
proach  the  centre,  and  that  the  Hplit  Hurl'ace  in  the 
centre  \h  Ichh  than  an  inch  in  length.  From  the  t<ixe 
of  thiH  chip,  and  the  number  of  diHtinct  cuts  upon  it, 
some  impre8Kion  may  be  formed  of  the  number  and 
power  of  the  bites  necessary  to  gnaw  down  a  tree  of 
the  diameter  of  either  of  those  descriljed;  and  yet  it 
is  said,  by  thowe  who  have  witnessed  the  performance, 
that  a  pair  of  full-grown  beavers  will  accomplish  the 
work  in  two  or  three  nights. 

Cottonwood-trees  are  st)lt  and  easily  cut.  The 
largest  trees  ever  fallen  by  the  beavers  are  of  this 
kind.  I  have  seen  them  on  the  banks  of  the  Upper 
Missouri  twenty  inches  and  two  feet  in  diameter. 
One  specimen  i.i  my  collection,  which  I  brought  down 
this  river  from  a  point  about  a  hundred  miles  east 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  measures  sixteen  inches  in 
diameter,  and  was  an  ordinary  specimen.  It  is  re- 
presented in  the  group  of  cuttings  (Plate  XVI.), 
but  partly  concealed  from  view.  Father  De  Smst, 
the  well-known  missionary  to  the  Indians  of  the 
Columbia  River,  informed  me  that  he  had  seen  cot- 
tonwoodtrees,  cut  down  by  beavers,  thirty  inches  in 
diameter;  and  Dr.  F.  V.  Hayden,  that  he  had  meas- 
ured a  cotton  wood-tree,  on  the  Yellowstone  River, 
after  it  was  cut  down  by  them,  of  the  same  diameter. 
Lewis  and  Clarke,  remarking  upon  the  tree  cuttings 
at  the  mouth  of  the  same  river,  state  that  "the 
beavers  have  committed  great  devastation  among  the 

12 


178 


THE   AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


trees,  one  of  which,  nearly  three  feet  in  diameter,  had 
been  gnawed  through  by  them."'  After  passing  Fort 
Randall,  in  ascending  the  Missouri,  the  cottonwood- 
tree  cuttings  are  seen  in  places  in  great  numbers 
along  a  distance  of  a  thousand  or  more  miles  to  the 
mountains.  At  some  points,  as  elsewhere  stated,  they 
are  cut  down  in  such  quantities  as  to  form  piles  of 
timber;  but  where  these  occur,  the  trees  are  usually 
small.  On  the  Yellowstone  River,  where  the  quan- 
tity of  cotton-wood  is  small  and  confined  to  the  bottom 
lands,  the  beavers  were  making  such  havoc  at  the 
time  of  my  visit  (1862)  that  the  Crow  Indians  had 
become  seriously  concerned  about  their  own  supply  of 
wood.  This  may  seem  extravagant,  and  it  probably 
was  an  unnecessary  alarm :  but  it  is  also  easy  to  dis- 
cover that  with  beavers  very  numerous  and  the  sup- 
ply of  wood  limited,  they  might  draw  overlargely 
upon  the  supply. 

Small  trees  and  the  limbs  of  large  trees  are  cut 
into  pieces  of  convenient  length  for  transportation, 
and  consequently  must  bear  a  definite  relation  to  the 
physical  powers  of  the  animal.  It  is  necessary  to 
move  them  on  land,  from  where  they  are  cut,  to  the 
nearest  accessible  point  in  the  pond,  whence  they 
are  floated  to  the  place  where  they  are  to  be  sunk 
to  form  a  magazine  of  provisions  for  the  winter. 
The  larger,  therefore,  the  limb  is  in  diameter,  the 
shorter  must  be  the  cutting  in  order  to  be  movable. 
A  comparison  of  a  large  number  of  these  cuttings 
shows  that  when  five  inches  in  diameter,  they  are 
usually  about  a  foot  long;  when  four  inches  in  diam- 


M 


Travels,  etc.     Longman's  ed.,  p.  146. 


W      ! 

I 
G    i' 


C73 

C/3 


1-3 


W 


I' 


.»•  !? 


W 


^H||P'» 

Wp' 

i 

^^^^^^Ee'*       ^^^^F- 

pll 

• 

2 
5 


SUBSISTENCE  OF   BEAVERS. 


179 


eter,  they  are  about  a  foot  and  a  half  long;  and  when 
three  inches  in  diameter,  they  are  about  two  feet  long. 
Poles  from  one  to  two  inches  in  diameter  are  often 
found  eight,  ten,  and  twelve  feet  in  lenji^th ;  and  also 
cut  up  into  short  lengths  from  a  few  feet  to  a  few 
inches  long.  Short  cuttings  of  these  dimensions  they 
are  able  to  roll  for  considerable  distances,  or  drag  with 
their  teeth  to  the  water;  after  which  they  are  easily 
transported  to  the  vicinity  of  their  lodges  and  there 
sunk.  I  have,  in  my  collection,  a  large  assortment  of 
these  cuttings  of  every  size  and  variety,  a  selection 
from  which  is  represented  in  Plate  XIV.,  engraved 
from  a  photograph  of  the  originals. 

The  four  separate  pieces  shown  in  the  engraving 
which  are  marked  No.  1,  are  bird's-eye  maple  denuded 
of  bark.  This  portion  of  the  tree  wac  six  feet  long 
before  it  was  cut  into  lengths,  and  from  five  to  six 
inches  in  diameter.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  cut 
ends  are  conical,  showing  that  the  beavers  cut  round 
and  round,  in  the  process  of  doing  which  it  is  neces- 
sary to  turn  the  stick.  One  turning  would  probably 
suffice  to  cut  a  limb  three  inches  in  diameter;  but  one 
of  the  size  of  this  would  require  several.  The  small 
tree  from  which  these  cuttings  were  made  grew  upon 
the  border  of  the  pond,  and  formed  the  part  nearest 
to  the  root.  While  the  remainder  of  the  tree  was  cut 
up  and  removed,  these  were  left  from  inability  to  take 
them  away.  Near  the  root  of  the  tree  there  was  a 
depression  in  the  ground  across  which  it  fell,  and 
when  cut  into  lengths  the  pieces  rolled  down  into  the 
basin.  The  largest  weighed  eleven  pounds  and  a  half 
in  its  dry  state,  and  the  smallest  six.  Finding  their 
removal  impossible,  they  were  stripped  of  their  bark 


180 


THE   AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


and  abandoned.     In  moving  cuttings  of  this  descrip- 
tion, they  are  quite  ingenious.     They  shove  and  roll 
them  with  their  hips,  using  also  their  legs  and  tails 
as  levers,  moving  sideways  in  the  act.     In  this  man- 
ner they  move  the  larger  pieces  from  the  more  or  less 
elevated  ground,  on  which  the  deciduous  trees  are 
found,  over  the  uneven  but  generally  descending  sur- 
face to  the   pond.     The   tree   cuttings   are   usually 
within  a  few  rods  of  the  water,  and  are  rarely  found 
at  any  great  distance  unless  upon  side  hills  which 
favor  their  easy  descent.     Aftei  one  of  these  cuttings 
has  been  transported  to  the  water,  a  beaver,  placing 
one  end  of  it  under  his  throat,  pushes  it  before  him  to 
the  place  where  it  is  to  be  sunk.     How  they  sink 
them  is  a  question.     The  yellow  birch,  when  fresh 
cut,  is  of  nearly  the  same  specific  gravity  as  water. 
On  trying  the  experiment  with  a  piece  of  the  size  of 
an  ordinary  cutting,  I  found  that  it  would  barely 
float,  the  whole  of  it  becoming  submerged  except  a 
small  portion  at  one  end.     It  was  evident  that  a  few 
hours  of  soakage  would  carry  it  to  the  bottom.     li  is 
sufficient  to  state  the  fact  that  piles  of  these  cuttings 
are  found,  late  in  the  fall,  sunk  near  their  lodges  in  the 
ponds, — except  where  brush  piles  are  found,  the  uses 
of  which  will  hereafter  be  explained.     In  amount 
they  vary  from  one-quarter  to  three-quarters  of  a  cord, 
while  in  occasional  instances  a  full  cord  has  been 
found.      Pole   cuttings,   short   bits,   and    brush   are 
dragged  to  the  water  with  their  teeth,  and  are  gener- 
ally moved  through  the  water  held  in  the  same  man- 
ner.    In  swimming,  the  upper  part  of  the  head  and  a 
small  part  of  the  shoulders  only  are  out  of  water;  so 
that  they  are  often  seen  with  a  stick  or  piece  of  brush 


t 


SUBSISTENCE  OF   BEAVERS. 


181 


held  in  the  teeth  at  one  end,  with  the  remainder 
passing  diagonally  across  the  back.  Captain  Jolinson 
once  saw  a  beaver  swimming  in  Grass  Lake,  in  the 
daytime,  with  a  small  bundle  of  grass  upon  the  top  of 
his  head,  which  he  was  evidently  transporting  to  iiis 
lodge. 

Beaver  stick  No.  2  in  the  engraving  is  a  very  in- 
teresting specimen,  since  it  illustrates  an  intermediate 
stage  of  the  process  of  cutting  branches  of  trees  into 
short  lengths.  It  is  a  yellow  birch,  seven  feet  and  a 
half  long,  with  an  average  of  three  and  a  half  iuelies 
in  diameter.  They  commenced  cutting  it  into  seven 
pieces,  of  which  the  first  four  were  each  about  a  foot 
long,  and  the  remaining  three  each  about  twenty 
inches;  and  the  work  was  going  on  at  all  of  these  in- 
cisions at  the  same  time.  Some  of  them  were  cut 
about  half  through,  the  others  less  or  more.  The  stick, 
in  other  words,  was  ready  to  be  turned  for  the  com- 
pletion of  the  work.  To  cut  it  entirely  through  from 
the  upper  side  would  require  an  incision  of  such  width 
as  to  involve  a  loss  of  labor.  Among  the  piles  on 
piles  of  cuttings  seen  and  examined,  I  do  not  recol- 
lect of  ever  finding  one  of  hard  wood  of  the  thickness 
of  this  cut  entirely  through  from  one  side.  There 
was  a  prong  at  each  end  of  this  stick,  the  longest  of 
which  is  not  seen  in  the  engraving,  which  evidently 
defeated  their  efforts  to  turn  it  over.  Finding  this 
impossible,  the  stick  was  abandoned  after  stripping  off" 
the  bark  on  its  upper  surface.  This  specimen  is  in- 
teresting from  the  revelation  it  seems  to  make  of  the 
mannerof  reducing  the  branches  of  trees.  In  the  first 
place,  after  felling  a  tree,  they  cut  off"  from  the  trunk 
such  limbs  as  are  of  suitable  size  to  be  cut  into  len-'ths 


182 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


I 


if 


^.lil 


:l| 


il 


for  transportation,  which  is  but  a  small  part  of  a  large 
tree.  They  next  trim  each  limb  by  cutting  off,  close 
to  the  body,  the  small  branches  and  twigs,  thus  free- 
ing it  of  brush.  There  are  nine  such,  large  and  small, 
cut  off  from  this  stick.  How  the  limbs  are  cut  into 
sticks  of  the  length  of  this  I  am  unable  to  state,  but 
it  must  be  effected  before  they  are  brought,  by  the  re- 
moval of  the  branches,  prone  upon  the  ground.  After 
that  they  can  only  be  gnawed  upon  the  top  and  sides, 
and  the  stick  must  be  turned  to  complete  the  work. 
Whenever,  from  any  cause,  they  are  unable,  as  in  this 
case,  to  turn  it  over,  they  are  forced  to  abandon  it,  or 
finish  their  labor  in  an  unusual  manner.  That  they 
rarely  fail  is  shown  by  the  scarcity  of  these  abandoned 
cuttings.  I  have  found  but  three,  two  of  which  are 
in  my  collection,  and  the  third  was  left  to  be  brought 
in,  but  the  person  sent  after  it  was  unable  to  retrace 
the  route. 

The  short  cutting.  No.  3  in  the  engraving,  was 
taken  from  the  top  of  the  lodge  at  dam  No.  14.  Both 
ends  are  conical,  showing  that  it  was  turned  while 
being  gnawed.  There  are  two  extra  cuts,  which  on 
close  examination  show  the  same  fact.  The  only  ex- 
planation which  can  be  offered  for  these  extra  inci- 
sions is  that  the  wood  itself  was  eaten.  Stick  No.  4, 
which  is  a  poplar,  is  marked  in  precisely  the  same 
way.  These  apparently  unnecessary  gnawings  are 
often  found  on  beaver  cuttings.  No.  5  is  the  stub  of 
a  small  tree,  with  two  deep  incisions  around  it,  while 
it  was  taken  off  at  a  third  place  above.  These  are 
the  only  evidences  found  upon  the  cuttings  themselves 
that  they  ever  eat  clear  wood.  It  was  stated  by  some 
of  the  early  writers  that  the  beaver  subsisted  upon 


SUBSISTENCE  OF   BEAVERS. 


183 


wood  as  well  as  bark,'  but  the  former  fact  appears  to 
have  been  overlooked  in  the  more  recent  articles  upon 
this  animal,  until  the  statement  became  general  that 
he  lived  upon  bark  and  the  roots  of  certain  plants. 
The  three  beavers  sent  down  for  dissection  last  win- 
ter were  taken  in  February  and  March,  at  the  time 
when,  their  store  of  provisions  being  the  lowest,  thoy 
might,  if  ever,  be  expected  to  eat  clear  wood.  Dr. 
Ely  found  their  stomachs  filled  with  lignine,  with  a 
slight  intermixture  of  the  tendrils  of  forest  trees,  and 
no  perceptible  remains  of  bark.  The  comminuted 
particles  were  so  clearly  of  wood  as  to  leave  no  doubt 
upon  the  question.  The  contents  of  the  cyccum  dis- 
closed the  same  fact,  as  the  digestive  process  simply 
removed  the  saccharine  materials  from  the  wood.  At 
the  same  time  the  beavers  were  in  excellent  condition. 
Trees  are  often  found  in  the  spring  gnawed  around, 
and  no  chips  at  the  foot.  It  was  evident  from  the 
leaves  that  the  work  was  done  after  the  sap  had 
started,  and  for  the  purpose  of  eating  the  wood. 
Additional  evidence,  tending  to  confirm  the  fact  of 
wood-eating,  may  be  derived  from  a  comparison  of 
the  amount  of  bark  upon  the  usual  stock  of  winter 
cuttings  with  the  necessary  wants  of  a  beaver  family 
of  six  or  eight  individuals.  It  would  afford  to  each 
but  a  small  amount  of  sustenance.  * 

While  it  is  generally  understood  that  beavers 
never  eat  the  bark  of  evergreen  trees,  for  which 
they  have  an  aversion,  they  sometimes  cut  them 
down;    and  it  may  be  done  for  the  purpose  of  eat- 


*  M.  Sarrasin,  Histoire  do  l'Aca(Winie  Royale  des  Scionces. 
Annee  1704. 


184 


THE   AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


inj5  the  wood.  Dr.  Newberry,  in  his  Report  re- 
ferred to  (fiuprft,  p.  165),  remarks  as  follows  upon  the 
tree  cuttings  in  the  Cascade  Mountains  of  Oregon: 
"From  the  point  where  their  burrows  terminate  in 
the  water,  trails  lead  off  to  the  thickets  of  willow  or 
pine,  where  the  beav^^rs  find  their  food.  These  thick- 
ets exhibit  the  most  surprising  proofs  of  the  power 
and  industry  of  these  animals;  whole  groves  of  young 
pine-trees  cut  down  within  a  few  inches  of  the  ground, 
and  carried  off  bodily.  *  *  *  We  of  ten  saw  trees 
of  considerable  size  cut  down  by  the  beaver;  the 
largest  of  whioh  I  noticed  was  a  spruce  pine,  twelve 
inches  in  diameter."  In  the  Lake  Superior  region  no 
species  of  evergreen  tree  is  ever  cut  by  them ;  except 
occasionally  a  young  spruce,  and  in  these  cases  the 
Indians  affirm  that  they  are  cut  down  for  the  gum 
exuded  from  the  tree.  A  Missouri  trapper  informed 
me  that  he  had  seen  pine-trees  that  had  been  cut 
down  by  beavers,  but  he  observed,  that  he  never  could 
find  a  place  where  a  limb  or  a  twig  had  been  cut  off 
from  such  a  tree.  There  is  a  possibility  that  the 
evergreen  trees,  referred  to  by  Dr.  Newberry,  were  cut 
down  by  the  beavers  to  obtain  the  nutritious  mosses 
which  grow  upon  certain  species  of  these  trees  in 
great  profusion;  or  for  the  sweet  gums  they  afforded. 
Upon  the  pines  west  of  the  mountains  there  is  a  moss, 
growing  as  a  parasite,  which  the  Indians  collect  in 
large  quantities  and  bake  in  ground  ovens  for  winter 
food.  It  is  cooked  or  baked  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  Kamash,  which  is  one  of  their  staple  articles  of 
consumption.  A  "moss  glue,"  as  it  is  commonly 
called,  is  thus  obtained,  which  is  both  palatable  and 
nutritious.     The  inner  bark  of  the  gum-pine  tree  also, 


SUBSISTENCE  OF   BEAVERS. 


185 


is  sweet  flavored,  and  used  by  the  Indians  for  f(M)d. 
Undoubtedly  the  beavers  of  the  west  coast  have 
special  inducements  to  attack  the  evern;reen  trees 
which  do  not  exist  in  other  parts  of  their  habitat. 

Pole  cuttings  of  different  lengths  are  often  found 
in  their  piles  of  winter  wood,  but  tliey  are  generally 
cut  for  present  use.  Fresh  cuttings  are  rarely  found 
between  the  commencement  of  vegetation  in  the 
spring  and  the  first  appearance  of  frost  in  the  fall. 
When  the  trapper  begins  to  find  them,  he  regards  it 
as  a  sign  that  they  have  commenced  their  fall  work. 

After  their  cuttings  of  various  lengths  and  sizes 
have  performed  the  first  office  for  which  they  were 
collected  and  stored,  they  are  in  the  condition  to  be 
most  useful  for  repairing  their  lodges  and  dams. 
Most  of  the  stickd  and  poles  found  upon  the  tops  of 
their  lodges  and  upon  the  lower  faces  of  their  dams 
show  conclusively  that  they  were  first  cut  and  stored 
ibr  winter  subsistence,  then  carried  into  the  lodge  and 
the  bark  ea>^en  off,  after  which  they  were  thrown  out 
into  the  pond,  to  be  again  gathered  and  applied  to  the 
purposes  named.  This  is  not  .always  the  case  with 
respect  to  their  lodges,  some  of  which  I  have  found 
covered  with  a  mass  of  poles  of  black  alder,  with  the 
bark  on:  upon  their  dams,  also,  brush  and  drift-wood 
are  often  found;  but  these  cuttings  are  the  usual 
materials  used  for  repairing  both. 

There  is  another  class  of  brush  cuttings,  the  prin- 
cipal object  and  use  of  which  are  involved  in  some 
doubt.  In  streams  having  considerable  volume,  which 
are  liable  to  rise  suddenly  after  rains  or  thaws,  and 
develop  currents  more  or  less  strong,  a  brush-heap 
(Fig.  21)  is  almost  universally  found  sunk  in  the  pond 


;l| 

u  ■ 

if 

il   , 

186 


THE   AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


immediately  against,  or  filightly  above  each  lodge. 
There  is  a  strong  current,  at  such  times,  in  Carp  River 
below  dam  No.  30,  and  in  the  Esconauba  below  dam 
No.  13.  On  the  other  hand,  these  brush  piles  are 
rarely,  if  ever,  found  connected  with  lodges  situated 
upon  the  margins  of  ponds  formed  by  dams  across 


Brush-heap  near  Lodge. 

small  brooits,  or  near  island  lodges  in  large  ponds, 
or  near  the  lake  lodges.  In  the  ponds  of  the  small 
streams  there  is  little  or  no  current,  and  none  that 
is  perceptible  in  the  small  lakes.  As  a  confirm- 
ation of  the  supposed  relation  between  these  currents 
and  the  brush  heaps,  the  latter  were  found  con- 
nected with  all  of  the  lodges  on  the  Carp  below  the 
point  named,  while  none  were  to  be  seen  near  the 
lodges  in  Grass  Lake,  nor  in  the  pond  at  the  Long 
Dam,  nor  at  any  of  the  lake  lodges.     The  same  is 


< 


M 


SUBSISTENCE  OF   BEAVERS. 


187 


all 
hat 
rm- 

nts 
;on- 

the 

the 
liong 
ie  is 


equally  true  with  reference  to  the  four  hwlgeH  on  the 
margin  of  the  natural  pond  hereafter  deHcrilx»d. 

The  brush-heap  represented  in  the  figure  was  in 
front  of  the  lodge  at  dam  No.  iU.  It  was  simply  a 
pile  of  brush,  composed  of  alder  bushes  and  the  small 
branches  of  deciduous  trees,  sunk  to  the  bottom  of  the 
pond  in  wJiter  about  four  feet  deep,  with  a  portion  of 
the  pile  rising  above  the  surface.  To  form  these 
heaps,  they  tow  in  the  brush  to  the  ploce,  piece  by 
piece,  and  sink  it  in  some  way  in  a  well-compacted 
pile,  which  after  a  short  time  becomes  firmly  anchored 
in  the  mud  below.  A  Missouri  trapper  informed  the 
author  that  he  had  seen  beavers,  while  performing 
this  work,  swim  to  the  place  towing  a  piece  of  brush, 
and  then,  holding  the  large  end  in  their  mouths,  go 
down  with  it  to  the  bottom  apparently  to  fix  it  in  tlie 
mud-bottom  of  the  pond.  An  ordinary  pile  covers  an 
area  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet  in  diameter,  and  rises  a 
few  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  contains 
the  substance  of  half  a  cord  of  wood. 

Both  the  Indians  and  the  trappers  regard  these 
brush-heaps  as  their  winter  supply  of  provisions. 
Whether  the  old  brush  is  removed  each  fall,  and  its 
place  supplied  with  fresh,  I  have  not  bsen  able  to 
ascertain  with  any  certainty,  but  it  is  very  doubtful. 
I  have  seen  the  same  brush  piles  at  the  same  lodges 
in  different  years,  on  the  Carp,  the  brush  itself  being 
old  and  decayed;  but  without  knowing  whether  the 
lodges  were  still  occupied.  In  any  event  it  would  be 
necessary  to  replenish  the  supply  at  times,  to  make 
good  the  waste  by  decay.  While  the  brush  was  fresh 
they  would  be  certain  to  use  it  for  food,  but  whether 
it  is  their  supply  for  the  winter,  is  made  doubtful  by 


*' 


188 


THE    AMKKK^AN    UKAVKR. 


tho  proHoncc  (»f  short  cuttinjijH  IcmIj^ciI  liore  nnrl  there 
ill  till'  pill'.  Haviii<4  in  ri'pratcil  iiiHtimces  moi'Ii  and 
pulled  out  of  these  hrush-heapH  short  cuttin«rs  of  the 
kind  found  in  their  store  piles  in  the  lar<^e  ponds  and 
lakes,  with  the  hark  still  upon  them,  the  fact  of  their 
presence  sugirested  the  prohiihility  that  the  principal 
ohject  of  these  hruah-piles  was  to  afford  a  safe  l«)dg- 
ment  for  short  cuttings,  upon  which  they  nniinly 
rely.  Without  some  such  protection  they  would  he 
liable  to  be  tloated  off  by  the  strong  currents,  and 
thus  be  lost  to  the  beavers  at  the  time  when  their 
lives  might  <lepend  upon  their  safe  custody.  A  resort 
to  a  brush-pile,  anchored  in  the  bed  of  the  channel  in 
the  manner  described,  as  a  means  to  the  safety  of 
their  winter  woixl,  displays  remarkable  forecast  and 
intelligence.  It  may  also  throw  some  light  on  the 
false  lodges  of  the  Upper  Missouri,  which  may  have 
been  constructed  in  part  for  a  similar  object.  Whe- 
ther this  is  the  true  explanation  of  their  object  is 
not  entirely  certain;  but  it  seems  to  bo  extremely 
probable. 

The  otter  is  a  rapid  and  splendid  swimn  ^^  possess- 
ing such  agility  of  movement  that  he  is  able  to  catch 
the  quickest  fish.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  beaver 
is  quick  enough  in  his  motions,  were  he  inclined  to 
adopt  this  mode  of  subsistence.  There  is  no  evidence 
that  he  ever  attacks  or  feeds  upon  fish.  When 
domesticated  he  will  eat  some  kinds  of  anirnal  food; 
but  he  prefers  farinaceous  substances,  and  soon  devel- 
ops a  special  fancy  for  sugar. 

The  tiesh  of  the  beaver  has  no  particular  excellence 
to  attract  the  epicure.  It  is  used  acceptjibly,  how- 
ever, in  the  same  forms  as  the  Hesh  of  other  animals. 


Hiii' 


'jl!i, 


StHSISTKNCB  OK    HKAVKKS. 


ISO 


Tlio  tail,  whioli  is  com  postal  lur;,'i'ly  olMfiisi',  fatt^tiH- 
MUL'H,  is  r('<:ar(UM]  us  a  tlclicacy. 

It  is  ratlior  rciiiurivaljlc,  on  ijctionil  considerations, 
tliat  the  slialiow  ponds  )iu\<\  by  beaver  dams  do  not 
I'ree/A!  to  tl»o  bottom  (birin^  tiie  <!old  winters  of  tlie 
hijuli  northern  latitudes.  The  tact  tliat  they  remain 
unfrozen  to  this  extent,  even  around  Hudson's  IJay, 
is  well  established.  Cnptain  Wils(m  informecl  me  that 
he  had  foinid  open  water  along  the  crest  of  the  dam 
at  (Irass  Lake,  nnd  gen<»rally  at  the  lo(l«;e  before 
described,  in  the  coldest  part  of  the  winter,  the  ther- 
mometer in  this  region  standing  at  an  average  of  5° 
below  zero  for  weeks  together.  There  are  special 
reasons  for  this,  among  which  is  the  doe[)  covering 
of  snow  throughout  the  winter,  which  protects  the 
water  fnmi  the  severe  temperature  of  the  athiosphere. 
The  first  fall  of  snow  lies  in  the  pond  partly  con- 
gealed, and  afterward  freezing  at  the  surface,  Ixjars 
up  the  subsequent  deposits.  From  this,  or  some  other 
cause  aft'ecting  the  temperature  of  the  water,  the  ice 
formed  is  not  always  strong  enough  in  the  coldest 
weather  to  bear  up  the  weight  of  a  man.  Another 
curious  fact  observed  by  the  trapper  is,  that  thin  ice 
is  usually  found  over  their  piles  of  winter  wood.  As 
these  ponds  are  rarely  over  six  feet  deep  in  aiiy  part 
of  their  area,  the  consequences  of  their  wood  becom- 
ing ice-bound  would  not  be  less  fatal  than  the  forma- 
tion of  solid  ice  in  the  entrances  to  their  lodges. 
There  are  undoubtedly  local  causes  affecting  the  tem- 
perature of  ponds  and  of  their  different  parts,  such  as 
springs  rising  through  their  beds  with  their  waters  at 
a  relatively  higher  temperature,  of  the  knowledge  of 
which  the  beavers  avail  themselves  in  selecting  the 


;;ii 


r.   I^Y  ,   -:        190 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


i  f  a" 

|| 

'" 

!"': 

i 
\ 

1 

1 

,     *'*.! 

rl 

places  of  deposit  for  their  winter  subsistence,  as  well 
as  the  sites  for  their  habitations.  Strangely  as  it  may 
appear  to  us,  the  winter  life  of  the  beaver,  while  shut 
up  in  the  seeming  darkness  of  a  pond  covered  over 
with  its  white  mantle  of  ice  and  snow,  is  made  a 
seavson  of  security,  of  comfort,  and  of  pleasure.  Thus 
we  see,  on  every  hand,  how  the  Divine  Author  of  ex- 
istence has  hedged  about  the  lives  of  these  remembered 
creatures  with  His  protecting  care. 

Note. — It  is  a  peculiarity  of  tlie  languages  of  our  Indian  na- 
tions that,  while  they  are  barren  of  terms  to  express  metaphys- 
ical or  abstract  conceptions,  they  are  opulent  in  terms  for  the 
designation  of  natural  objects,  and  for  expressing  relative  differ- 
ences in  the  same  object.  In  the  Ojibwa,  for  example,  there  are 
different  names  for  the  beaver  according  to  his  age,  and  com- 
pound terms  to  indicate  sex,  as  follows : 

Specific  name,  Ah-raik'. 

Year  old  and  under,  Ah-wa-ne-sha'. 

Two  years  old,  0-bo-ye-wa'. 

Full  grown,  or  old,  Gi-chi-ah'-mik. 

Male  beaver,  Ah-yii-ba-mik'. 

Female  beavor  No-zha-mik'. 

Their  terms  for  the  works  of  the  beaver  are  the  following : 
O-ko'-min,  beaver  dam;  \^'ig-e-wam',  beaver  lodge;  0-wazhe', 
beaver  burrow;  O-de-na-o'-nane,  beaver  canal — literally,  "made 
channel  to  travel  in;"  0-dtl-be-naze'.  lodge  chamber — literally, 
"  lodging  place ;"  Pii-pii-num-wad',  snow  chimney  over  lodge — lit- 
erally, "where  they  let  off  their  breath."  They  have  names, 
also,  for  the  different  kinds  of  cuttings ;  but  they  are  descriptive 
rather  than  specific  terms. 

(a,  as  in  ale ;  &,  as  in  father;  A,  as  in  at;  i,  as  in  ice;  i,  as  in  it.) 


£^ 


CHAPTER  VII. 


BEAVER   CANALS,  MEADOWS,   AND  TRAILS. 

Beaver  Canals — Their  Extraordinary  Character — Originated  by  Necessity — 
Their  Uses — Evidences  of  tlieir  Artificial  Character — Canals  at  Natural 
Pond — Their  Form  and  Appearance — Canal  on  Carp  River — Use  of  Dams 
in  same — Canal  across  Bend  of  Esconauba — Same  across  Island  in  Pond 
—  Beaver  Meadows  —  IIow  formed  —  Their  Extent  —  Beaver  Slides  on 
Upper  Missouri — Scenery  on  this  River — Bluffs  of  Indurated  Clay — Bad 
Lands — White  Walls — Game — Connection  of  River  Systems  with  Spread 
of  Beavers. 

In  the  excavation  of  artificial  canals  as  a  means  for 
transporting  their  wood  by  water  to  their  lodges,  we 
discover,  as  it  seems  to  me,  the  highest  act  of  intelli- 
gence and  knowledge  performed  by  beavers.  Remark- 
able as  the  dam  may  well  be  considered,  from  its 
structure  and  objects,  it  scarcely  surpasses,  if  it  may 
be  said  to  equal,  these  water-ways,  here  called  canals, 
which  are  excavated  through  the  low  lands  bordering 
their  ponds  for  the  purpose  of  reaching  the  hard  wood, 
and  of  affording  a  channel  for  its  transportation  to 
their  lodges.  To  conceive  and  execute  such  a  design 
presupposes  a  more  complicated  and  extended  pro- 
cess of  reasoning  than  that  required  for  the  construc- 
tion of  a  dam;  and,  although  a  much  simpler  work 
to  perform,  when  the  thought  was  fully  developed,  it 
was  far  less  to  have  been  expected  from  a  mute  ani- 
mal. 

When  I  first  came  upon  these  canals,  and  found 
they  were  christened  with  this  name  both  by  Indians 

(191) 


192 


THE   AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


Ml   ! 


\l  t 


and  trapi)crs,  I  doubted  tlieir  artificial  character,  and 
supposed  thorn  referable  to  springs  as  their  producing 
cause;  but  their  form,  location,  and  evident  object 
showed  conclusively  that  they  were  beaver  excava- 
tions. They  are  not  mentioned,  as  far  as  I  am  aware, 
in  any  of  the  current  accounts  of  this  animal,  for 
which  reason,  as  well  as  their  extraordinary  character, 
they  are  deserving  of  more  than  a  general  notice. 

From  the  preceding  engravings  an  impression  hjis 
been  obtained  of  the  character  of  the  forest  in  the 
vicinity  of  dams  and  ponds.  It  will  be  observed  that 
the  tamarack  and  spruce  are  the  prevailing  trees  upon 
the  borders  of  the  streams.  These  evergreen  trees 
are  themselves  indicative  of  swamp  lands.  Both  the 
Esconav^ba  and  the  Carp  flow  through  low  grounds, 
which,  widening  out  in  places  into  flats,  are  invariably 
covered  with  these  trees;  with  the  exception  of  the 
areas  of  the  beaver  meadows.  Birch,  maple,  popluf, 
and  ash  are  found  upon  the  first  high  ground;  but 
often  at  the  distance  of  several  hundred  feet  from  the 
original  channel  of  the  stream.  In  some  places  these 
rivers  cut  the  high  banks,  thus  bringing  the  deciduous 
trees  within  reach;  but  the  latter  are  some  distance 
back  ai/  the  greater  proportion  of  the  ponds  shown  on 
the  map.  It  is  one  of  the  principal  objects  of  dams 
on  the  small  streams,  which  are  without  defined 
banks,  to  flood  the  low  grounds  with  a  pond,  and  thus 
obtain  a  water  connection  with  the  first  high  ground 
upon  which  the  hard  wood  is  found.  Where  the  pond 
fails  to  accomplish  this  fully,  and  also  where  the 
banks  are  defined  and  mark  tlie  limits  of  the  pond, 
the  deficiency  is  supplied  by  the  canals  in  question. 
On  descending  surfaces,  as  has  elsewhere  been  stated, 


♦  '.'« 


-*N 


ill 


(i 


NATURAL  POND  an.l  BEAVER  CANALS. 


BEAVER   CANALS,  MKADOWS,  AND   TRAILS.  193 


beavers  roll  and  drag  their  short  cuttings  down  into 
the  ponds.  But  where  the  grouiid  is  low,  it  is  f!;ener- 
ally  so  uneven  or  rough  as  to  render  it  extremely  dif- 
ficult, if  not  impossible,  for  the  beavers  tomovo  them, 
for  any  considerable  distance,  by  physical  force. 
Hence  the  canal  for  floating  them  across  the  inter- 
vening level  ground  to  the  pond.  The  necessity  for  it 
is  so  apparent  as  to  diminish  our  astonishment  at  its 
construction;  and  yet  that  the  beaver  should  devise 
a  canal  to  surmount  this  difficulty  is  not  the  less 
remarkable. 

The  area  represented  by  the  map  is  not  more 
abundantly  supplied  with  dams,  lodges,  and  burrows 
than  with  artificial  canals.  It  contains  within  its 
limits  nearly  every  variety  of  the  works  of  the 
beaver  found  in  North  America,  some  of  which,  as 
the  Grass  Lake  dam,  are  unequaled  in  their  magni- 
tude and  completeness.  Beaver  canals  are  very  nu- 
nieious  within  this  area.  Many  of  them  are  small 
and  unimportant;  but  the  great  length  of  some  of 
them  is  the  striking  feature  which  invests  them,  as 
artificial  works,  with  a  high  degree  of  interest. 

Immediately  north  of  the  Cleveland  Iron  Mine  there 
is  a  natural  pond  (Plate  XVII.)  covering  about  forty 
acres  of  land.  It  is  bordered  on  all  sides,  except  at  its 
outlet,  with  rising  ground  at  the  distance  of  a  few  hun- 
dred feet  from  its  margin.  The  intermediate  ground  is 
level,  and  rises  but  a  few  inches  above  the  surface  of 
the  pond.  On  this  low  land  there  is  first  a  border  of 
moss  turf  entirely  skirting  the  pond,  and  spreading 
out  in  different  places  from  fifty  to  two  hundred  or 
more  feet.  Without  this,  tamarack,  spruce,  and  pine 
are  found;  and  upon  the  rising  ground,  birch,  ash,  and 

13 


194 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


maple.  The  pond  is  shallow,  and  thickly  sprinkled 
over  in  the  summer  with  water  lilies;  while  in  the 
moss  turf,  the  unique  Pitcher-plant  {Sarracem'a  Pur- 
imrea)  grows  in  the  greatest  profusion.  This  turf, 
which  is  saturated  with  water,  and  yields  under  the 
feet,  spreads  out  like  a  carpet  on  the  skirts  of  the 
pond.  These  particulars  have  been  mentioned  to 
show  that  there  was  not  a  spot  of  solid  earth  imping- 
ing upon  the  water  in  which  the  beavers  could  con- 
struct a  burrow.  It  is  well  known  that  they  never 
risk  their  personal  safety  upon  the  lodge  alone,  which 
is  conspicuous  to  their  enemies,  but  rely  upon  con- 
cealed burrows  as  the  places  of  final  resort.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  principal  use  of  a  canal  to  reach  by  water 
the  hard- wood  lands,  it  was  also  necessary  to  their 
inhabiting  this  pond  that  they  should  be  able,  by  its 
means,  to  reach  burrowing  ground. 

These  canals  are  about  three  feet  wide  and  about 
three  feet  deep,  with  a  depth  of  water  varying  from 
fifteen  to  thirty  inches.  They  are  made  by  excava- 
tion. The  earth,  which  is  more  or  less  soft  from  sat- 
uration, is  removed  by  being  thrown  out  on  either 
side,  or  carried  out  into  the  pond.  In  some  places  it 
appears  to  have  been  placed  on  the  bank,  but  nearly 
all  of  these  canals  are  so  old  that  no  signs  can  now  be 
observed  of  the  places  where  the  excavated  materials 
were  deposited.  Their  artificial  character  is  demon- 
strated by  other  proofs.  In  the  first  place,  they  are 
filled  with  water  from  the  ponds  up  to  the  first  of  the 
dams,  which  are  sometimes  built  across  them;  and 
where  there  are  none,  then  to  the  end  of  the  excava- 
tion. The  banks,  in  the  second  place,  are  vertical, 
showing  none  of  the  marks  of  water  flowing  in  a 


■n 


l»i»XVIll 


^  ¥  ?^  c  "^  ^  -^^^  "^  5,"  ^ ""  ^ 


O.'i^ 


4&   -    0 


<'V«>- 


K?'^'^ 


\3   4^ 


-^^^)l^y. 


Cn.- 


\ 


» 


•YV.^.^°C^''  '^ 


V 


'  -  /  r  /»  LCv'^ 

wide  .0,  ^fv'S-p  r  i:r'^-^^/^,.-, 


ft* 


'//, 


'j.fi:.wLcU. 

9inJ)< 


f  J"/  M^t^e 


^'^0.'"^6%o,-,.'^.  =  , 


r.  C,   ;  ^ 


.9.f> 


fCrr^ 


Hl-J 


O 


BEAVER  CANAL  Noxtk  Sidp 


BEAVER   CANALS,  MEADOWS,  AND   TRAILS. 


lo: 


smnll  Htream.  In  the  third  phice,  tliey  often  term- 
inate in  dry  hard  earth  at  the  foot  of  the  risiiitj; 
ground.  There  is  not,  in  the  fourth  place,  the  Mliglit- 
est  current  in  these  canals  showing  that  they  are  fed 
by  springs.  In  the  fifth  place,  surface  water,  filtering 
through  grounds  substantially  level,  never  could  cut 
such  uniform,  and,  much  less,  such  deep  channels. 
And  in  the  sixth  and  last  place,  roots  of  trees,  four 
inches  in  diameter,  are  found  cut  off  and  removed  to 
afford  an  unobstructed  channel.  In  like  manner, 
alder  bushes,  which  branch  low,  as  well  as  send  out 
strong  roots,  are  found  cut  off  in  large  numbers  where 
they  overhang  and  line  their  borders.  An  inspection 
and  comparison  of  a  number  of  these  canals  leave  no 
doubt  whatever  of  their  artificial  character. 

The  first  canal  to  be  described,  and  which  is  shown 
in  Plate  XVIII.,  is  on  the  north  side  of  the  pond  rep- 
resented in  the  preceding  plate.  For  the  distance 
of  four  hundred  and  fifty  feet  it  is  cut  through  level 
ground,  and  filled  with  water  from  the  pond.  There 
are  knolls  or  hummocks  scattered  over  the  surface  in 
which  tamarack  and  spruce  trees  are  rooted;  but 
there  is  no  perceptible  ascent  until  the  first  dam  is 
reached,  when  there  is  a  rise  of  about  a  foot.  The 
banks  of  the  canal,  which  are  vertical,  rise  a  few 
inches  above  the  level  of  tl  e  water  with  "'hioh  it  is 
filled.  Up  to  this  dam  it  is  perfectly  evident  that  the 
water  in  the  canal  is  supplied  from  the  pond.  Twenty- 
five  feet  above  there  is  a  second  rise  of  about  a  foot, 
and  here  we  find  a  second  dam,  extending  over  seventy- 
five  feet  beyond  the  canal  on  one  side,  and  twenty- 
seven  on  the  other.  As  here  used,  these  dams  are 
exceedingly  ingenious.   They  were  designed  to  receive 


196 


THE   AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


and  hold  tho  surface  watcM'  from  rains,  as  well  as  that 
passed  down  by  drainage  from  the  hi}j;h  grounds,  after 
which  it  was  collected  by  filtration,  in  the  channel  of 
the  canal  which  is  sunk  about  three  feet  below  the  level 
of  the  surrounding  ground.  At  the  distance  of  forty- 
seven  feet  from  the  second  there  is  a  third  and  much 
larger  dam,  one  hundred  and  forty-two  feet  long,  con- 
structed in  a  semicircle,  with  its  arms  pointing  out 
toward  the  high  ground,  and  designed  for  the  same 
object.  It  collects  the  surface  water  in  pools,  here 
and  there,  but  fails  to  form  a  pond  for  want  of  suffi- 
cient water.  With  this  dam  the  canal  terminates. 
At  this  point  the  hard  wood  is  reached,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  five  hundred  and  twenty-three  feet  from  the 
pond.  A  B  in  the  diagram  represent  a  transverse 
eviction  of  the  first  dam,  on  the  line  of  the  canal;  and 
C  D,  the  same  of  the  third.  The  crests  of  these 
dams  where  they  cross  the  canal  are  depressed,  or 
worn  down,  in  the  centre,  by  the  constant  passage  of 
beavers  over  them  while  going  to  and  fro,  and  dragging 
their  cuttings.  This  canal,  with  its  adjuncts  of  dams 
and  its  manifest  objects,  is  a  remarkable  work,  tran- 
scending very  mueh  the  ordinary  estimates  of  the  in- 
telligence of  the  beaver.  It  served  to  bring  the  occu- 
pants of  the  pond  into  easy  connection,  by  water,  with 
the  trees  that  supplied  them  with  food,  as  well  as  to 
relieve  them  from  the  tedious,  and  perhaps  impossible, 
task  of  moving  their  cuttings  five  hundred  feet  over 
uneven  ground,  unassisted  by  any  descent.  As  an 
efibrt  of  free  intelligence  to  surmount  natural  obstacles, 
it  is  one  of  the  highest  achievements  of  this  animal. 
The  width  and  depth  of  the  channel  at  different 
points  are  sufficiently  shown  upon  the  ground  plan. 


I  ! 


Plf^teXIX 


BEAVEK  CAUAL    South  Side. 


,/ 


/ 


BEAVER   CANALS,  MEADOWS.  AND  TRAILS. 


107 


Not  the  IcjiHt  iutcrostimr  fact  coniu'ctcjl  with  thi-* 
canal  is  that  of  the  great  aiiioiint  of  lahor  lU'crMMarv 
for  its  oxcavntloM.  It  inu»t  havo  rtMjiiirod  many  vt-ars 
of  <!oiitinnouH»nort  huforu  it  wris  brought  into  its  pri's- 
ent  conipU'tc'd  condition,  both  as  to  length  and  depth. 
The  canals  are  m«»st  lii<cly  cleaned  out  and  deep- 
ened from  time  to  time,  ns  materials  from  the  surface 
fall  into  them  and  obstruct  the  channel.  The  bottom 
was  covered  with  line  libres  and  tendrils  of  tree  roots, 
and  with  decayed  leaves,  which  made  it  soft  and  yield- 
ing to  the  depth  of  a  foot  below  the  apparent  bottom. 

There  are  several  canals  connected  with  this  pond, 
of  which  the  four  largest  commence  near  the  four  lodges 
situated  upon  its  borders.  It  will  be  suflicient  to  de- 
scribe one  of  those  remaining,  taking  that  immediately 
opposite  on  the  south  side  of  the  pond  (Plate  XIX.). 
This  canal  is  also  excavated  through  the  low  ground, 
and  is  filled  to  its  extreme  ends  with  water  from  the 
pond.  At  the  distance  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
it  reaches  the  first  ri.se  of  ground,  and  the  hard-wood 
land,  where  it  branches  into  two  canals,  one  of  which 
is  continued  for  one  hundred  feet,  and  the  other  for 
one  hundred  and  fifteen  feet  along  the  base  of  high 
and  dry  ground,  covered  with  deciduous  trees.  Both 
branches  terminate  with  a  vertical  cut  in  dry  sandy 
soil,  and  are  carried  through  the  same  low  groimd  as 
the  main  trunk,  the  surface  rising  but  a  few  inches 
above  the  level  of  the  pond.  Of  its  artificial  char- 
acter there  can  be  no  doubt.  The  measurements  are 
given  upon  the  ground  plan. 

This  canal  passed  a  number  of  knolls  surmounted 
with  trees,  under  many  of  which  burrows  had  been  ex- 
cavated.    Evidences  of  this  underground  work  were 


193 


THE   AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


ii 

1 

4  1 

It! 

1; 

r 

apparent  in  many  places.  One  of  these  burrows,  that 
nearest  to  the  pond,  is  described  with  a  diagram  {ftupri, 
page  163). 

At  the  distance  of  about  seventy  feet  from  the  pond, 
this  canal  widens  out  to  five  feet,  und  then  bears  a  little 
to  the  left.  The  engraving  (Plate  XX.)  is  from  a  photo- 
grapl.<  taken  from  this  point,  and  looking  down  toward 
the  pond.  It  ^hows  the  pond  and  about  seventy-five 
feet  of  the  canal.  The  lodge  is  mostly  concealed 
behind  the  clump  of  small  trees  upon  the  right.  The 
engraving  is  inaccurate  in  one  respect.  It  shows  the 
ground  too  much  elevated  above  the  level  of  the 
water  in  the  canal. 

There  is  one  feature  of  this  canal  deserving  of  at- 
tention. After  the  rising  ground,  and  with  it  the 
hard-wood  trees,  were  reached  at  the  point  where  it 
branched,  there  was  no  very  urgent  necessity  for  the 
branches.  But  their  construction  along  the  base  of  the 
high  ground  gave  them  a  frt  iitage  upon  the  canal  of 
two  hundred  and  fifteen  feet  of  hard-wood  lands,  thus 
affording  to  them,  along  this  extended  line,  the  great 
advantages  of  water  transportation  for  their  cuttings. 
If  we  are  to  regard  these  extensions  as  a  further 
expression  of  their  appreciation  of  the  uses  of  a  canal, 
it  must  increase  our  estimate  of  their  powers  of  reflec- 
tion. "Insstinct,"  as  that  unfortunate  and  blundering 
term  is  understood  by  those  who  comprehend  its  mean- 
ing, would  have  fully  performed  its  office  when  the 
canal  had  been  carried  to  the  point  of  contact  with  the 
high  ground.  Any  progress  of  the  work  beyond  this 
must  be  referable  to  the  exercise  of  a  free  intelligence.* 

*  The  lodges  upon  this  pond  were  of  the  usual  size,  measuring 
from  fourteen  to  sixteen  feet  over  their  summits,  and  from  throe 


Plate  .a. 


ftvtfva.  litOto^rapK 


tSJlutial  Son  U  Cc  I'hiV 


BEAVER  CANAL    South  Side 


Mm<^!^ 


BEAVER  CANALS,  MEADOWS,  AND  TRAILS.         199 


There  is  an  extensive  canal  on  Caq)  River  a  short 
distance  below  the  bend  represented  in  Plate  XIV.  It 
runs  through  low,  swampy  ground,  which  is  covered, 
for  one-quarter  of  its  length,  with  a  thicket  of  alder  so 
dense  that  it  was  difficult  to  follow  the  channel  for  the 
purposes  of  measurement.  The  river,  which  at  this 
point  is  a  hundred  feet  wide,  more  or  less,  is  bordered 
with  alder  and  cranberry  bushes,  and  with  a  forest  of 
tamaracks.  Back  of  these,  some  six  hundred  feet,  is  the 
first  rising  ground  covered  with  deciduous  trees;  to 
reach  which  the  canal  was  constructed.  At  the  dis- 
tance of  one  hundred  and  eleven  feet  from  its  com- 
mencement in  the  river  there  was  a  rise  in  the  surface 
level  of  about  a  fooi,  which  made  necessary  either  a 
dam,  or  an  additional  foot  of  excavation,  to  furnish  a 
sufficient  depth  of  water.  A  dam  twenty-five  feet  long, 
across  the  canal  and  the  grounds  adjacent,  was  the  ex- 
pedient adopted.  The  second  level  of  the  canal,  thus 
raised  a  foot  above  the  first,  continued  one  hundred 
and  seventy-eight  feet,  where  a  second  rise  occurs  of 
about  the  same  amount,  and  where  a  second  dam 
was  constructed  thirty  feet  long.  As  the  ground  on 
both  sides  of  the  canal  was  swampy,  with  water  in 
pools  here  and  there,  it  was  only  necessary  to  exca- 
vate a  chani  el  of  the  requisite  depth  to  obtain  a  suffi- 
cient supply  of  water  by  filtration  from  the  adjoining 
lands.  Up  to  the  first  dam  the  canal  was  filled  from 
the  river,  and  consequently  varied  in  depth  with  the 
rise  and  fall  of  the  stream;  but  above  this,  where  it 

feet  to  three  feet  six  iuches  in  height.  The  chamber  of  the  lodge 
at  the  canal  last  described  was  four  feet  nine  inches  in  its  largest 
diameter,  four  feet  six  inches  in  its  transverse,  and  one  foot  three 
inches  high. 


4 


200 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


depended  upon  the  dam,  and  the  source  of  supply 
before  named,  it  was  uniformly  about  eighteen  inches 
deep.  From  the  second  dam  the  canal  continued  at  a 
foot  higher  level  for  the  distance  of  two  hundred  and 
ninety  feet,  where  it  terminated  at  the  base  of  the 
hard-wood  lands  at  a  distance  of  five  hundred  and 
sevtnty-nine  feet  from  the  river.  Its  average  width 
wns  about  four  feet,  and  it  had  an  unobstructed  chan- 
nel of  about  eighteen  inches  deep  from  one  end  to  the 
Other,  with  the  exception  of  the  dams.  The  run-ways 
of  the  beavers  over  these  dams  were  very  conspicu- 
ous. They  were  shown,  as  in  the  other  cases,  by  a 
depression  in  the  centre  formed  by  traveling  over 
them  in  going  up  and  down  the  canal.  At  the  mouth 
of  the  canal  the  river  was  not  deep  enough  for  a 
beaver  to  swim  below  its  surface  out  into  the  stream. 
To  obviate  the  difficulty,  a  channel,  twenty-five  feet 
long  and  a  foot  or  more  deep,  was  excavated  in  the 
bed  of  the  river  far  enough  out  to  carry  them  into 
deep  water.  The  materials  were  thrown  up  in  an 
embankment  on  the  side  below  the  excavation,  ap- 
parently lest  the  current  of  the  stream  should  carry 
them  back  into  the  channel.  The  excavation  and  the 
embankment,  which  were  plainly  to  be  seen  side  by 
side,  the  latter  in  places  coming  up  to  the  surface  of 
the  water,  presented  another  striking  illustration  of 
the  industry  as  well  as  intelligence  of  the  beaver. 

It  is  manifest  from  the  form  and  general  appearance 
of  this  canal  (Plate  XXI.)  that  it  is  artificial.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  uniformity  and  depth  of  its  channel,  its 
vertical  banks,  the  absence  of  a  current,  the  sources 
whence  the  water  is  obtained,  and  its  actual  use  as  a 
channel  for  the  transportation  of  wood  cuttings,  there 


Plate  Xr.. 


of 


f\  "'  -f 


....  r-V  "   (1  \ 


U) 


ry. 


,^v«-  J,-.,!  ,     ■lb'  A     ^  t;Ar     <^      ■     '■"  ^•'    '■■'A  >j )( 


BEAVER  CANAL,   CABP  RIVER 


♦ 


# 


BEAVER  CANALS,  MEADOWS,  AND  TRAILS.         201 


is  still  other  evidence  tending  to  the  same  conclusion. 
Along  the  canal  there  are  roots  from  two  to  four 
inches  in  diameter  cut  o£f  at  the  bank  on  opposite 
sides,  below  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  removed. 
Alder  bushes  in  great  numbers,  even  when  branching 
across  the  canal  several  inches  above  the  ground,  are 
found  cut  oflF  to  free  the  channel  from  obstructions. 
Besides  these  several  considerations,  the  canal  term- 
inates in  dry  ground;  and  the  intermediate  space 
through  which  it  is  carried  is  of  such  a  character  as 
to  preclude  the  possibility  of  the  formation  of  such  a 
channel  by  natural  causes. 

This  canal  may  be  regarded  as  typical  of  these 
works.  They  are  usually  cut  through  low,  swampy 
ground  where  the  supply  of  water  is  obtained  by  fil- 
tration from  the  adjacent  lands,  after  forming  a  chan- 
nel for  its  reception.  With  dams  at  each  change  of 
level  to  prevent  the  channel  from  drawing  off  the 
water,  they  can  be  carried  as  far  as  pools  of  surface 
water  can  be  found. 

It  is  not  uncommon  to  find,  at  bends  in  streams, 
canals  cut  across  the  neck,  apparently  to  shorten  the 
distance  in  going  up  and  down  by  water.  One  of  this 
kind  has  been  shown  (Plate  XIV.)  in  connection  with 
a  lodge.  There  are  a  number  of  these  canals  within 
the  area  of  the  map,  three  of  the  largest  of  which  are 
shown  in  sections  4  and  28.  The  engraving  (Plate 
XXII.)  is  from  a  photograph  of  one  on  the  section  last 
named,  and  it  is  introduced  to  show  the  beaver  mead- 
ows on  the  Esconauba  as  well.  It  is  a  view  across  a 
bend  in  this  river,  showing  the  stream  in  the  foreground 
passing  by  from  right  to  left,  and  again  in  the  back- 
ground flowing  in  the  opposite  direction.     The  canal 


202 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVrR. 


is  excavated  across  the  neck,  and  apptars  in  the  right 
side  of  the  engraving.  It  is  one  hundred  and  eighty- 
five  feet  long,  three  feet  wide,  and  about  fifteen  inches 
deep.  When  the  dam  below  (No.  14)  was  in  repair 
and  the  pond  full,  it  would  be  about  four  feet  wide 
ond  three  feet  deep.  No  other  object  for  these  exca- 
vations can  be  assigned,  except  to  shorten  the  distance 
in  going  up  and  down  the.  iiver.  There  was  no  hard 
wood  in  its  /icinity.  Alder  bushes  were  growing  on 
both  sides  of  the  canal,  which  were  cut  away  on  one 
side  to  show  the  water  within  it.  The  evidence  is 
less  conclusive  that  these  excavations  are  artificial 
than  in  the  case  of  the  canals  before  described.' 

In  some  cases  simi'-ir  excavations  are  made  across 
islands  in  their  ponds,  where  they  are  long,  for  the 
obvious  purpose  of  sa^'^ing  distance  in  going  around. 
In  the  Chippewa  River,  in  Lower  Michigan,  there  is  a 
pond,  covering  several  hundred  acres  of  land,  formed 
by  a  beaver  dam,  in  which  there  is  u  low  island  of  firm 
earth  nearly  a  mile  in  length  Across  this  island  there 
are  two  such  canais  about  five  hundred  feet  long,  exca- 
vated by  the  beavers  for  the  purpose  of  a  water  transit 
over  the  island.  They  were  described  to  me,  with 
their  dimensions,  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Johnson,  for  many 

'  The  Ojibwas  discriminate  this  variety'  of  cannl  from  the  other, 
and  call  it  o-ne-ge'-gome  (from  nee-geek',  utter),  signifyitr;^  "otter 
crossing,"  from  the  use  the  otter  is  known  to  make  ui"  them. 
The  otter  is  a  "gay  and  festive"  animal.  He  doe^  not  slide 
down  hill  upon  the  frozen  snow  after  the  fashion  of  the  Polar 
bears  described  by  Dr.  Kane;  but,  coiling  him&elf  up  in  the  form 
of  a  hoop,  with  his  tail  in  his  mouth,  he  will  roll  down  a  hill 
upon  the  snow-crust  with  great  velocity.  Father  De  Sniet,  be- 
fore referred  to.  witnessed  this  performj,nce  of  an  otter  in  Wash- 
ington Tenitory. 


to 

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a- 

P- 

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Jii: 

Ifiiir 


L.n 


'olar 

Form 

hill 

be- 

'ash- 


'^■:^ 


•j  T.. 


Mbt 


BEAVER   CANALS,  MEADOWS,  AND  TRAILS.  203 


years  a  inisHionary  among  the  Ojibwa  Indians,  who 
went  upon  the  ishind  and  examined  them.  Beaver 
excavations  on  a  hirge  scale  are  very  common  in  dis- 
tricts favorable  for  their  occupation,  and  they  are 
greatly  diversified  in  character.  At  the  upper  end  of 
the  principal  pond  at  the  gorge,  where  the  series  of 
dams  are  found,  there  is  a  canal  two  hundred  and 
fifty  feet  long,  which  enters  the  pond  where  it  is  too 
shallow  for  a  beaver  to  swim  below  the  surface  of  the 
water.  To  correct  this  inconvenience  a  channel  was 
excavated  in  the  bed  of  the  pond  for  about  fifty  feet 
in  length,  the  materials  from  which  were  thrown  up 
on  either  side. 

Beaver  meadows  are  properly  among  the  works  of 
the  beavers,  although  consequences,  merely,  of  their 
labor  for  other  objects.  Wliere  dams  are  constructed, 
'ohe  waters  first  destroy  the  timber  within  the  area  cov- 
ered by  the  ponds.  When  the  adjacent  lands  are  low, 
thyy  are  occasionally  overflown  after  heavy  rains,  and 
a.i\i  at  all  times  saturated  with  water  from  the  ponds. 
In  course  of  time,  the  trees  within  the  area  affected 
are  totally  destroyed;  in  place  of  which  a  rank,  lux- 
uriant grass  springs  up.  A  level  meadow,  iu  the 
strict  and  proper  sense  of  the  terra,  is  thus  formed; 
although  much  unlike  the  meadow  of  the  ''^■-.  ated 
farm.  At  a  distance  they  appear  to  ^c  level  and 
smooth;  but  when  you  attempt  to  walk  over  them, 
they  are  found  to  be  a  series  of  hummocks  formed  of 
earth  and  a  mass  of  coarse  roots  of  grass  rising  about 
a  foot  high,  while  around  each  of  them  there  is  a 
narrow  strip  of  bare  and  sunken  ground.  The  bare 
spaces,  which  are  but  a  few  inches  wide,  have  the 
appearance  of  innumerable    water-courses    through 


\'t 


204 


TIIK    AMKFMrAN    HEAVFR. 


which  the  wiitcr  j)iiss<'h  when  tho  incii'lou's  iirc  ovcr- 
llowt'd.  A  huiivcr  incadnw,  thcrclbre,  may  hv  likcnt'd 
to  tht'  f'aco  of  a  walllc-iion — tho  raised  ciniiK'niM's  of 
wliicli  represent  th»'  hiiiniiiockH  of  jrni.ss,  and  the  iii- 
doiitatioHH  tho  di'pivssions  around  thoin  lor  tlio  pas- 
Hago  of  water.  In  IMates  IX.  and  XXII,.  which  are 
oiigravei]  from  photografjlis,  a  small  portion  of  tiic 
beaver  meadows  are  shown. 

Tho  amount  of  lands  in  a  heaver  district  thus 
turned  into  meadowB  is  large,  when  the  conditions 
under  wliich  they  are  produced  are  considered.  On 
the  Car{)  and  Esconauba  Rivers,  within  the  area  of 
tlie  ma|),  there  are  about  ninety  acres,  in  the  aggre- 
gate, of  beaver  meadows;  the  situation  and  bound- 
aries of  which  are  indicated  by  dotted  lines.  There 
are  other  districts,  particularly  on  the  main  branch  of 
the  Esconauba,  where  the  amount  is  much  larger. 
These  meadows  are  very  common  in  the  vicinity  of 
beaver  dams.  When  inm  mining  operations  were 
first  commenced  in  the  Lake  Superior  region,  the 
grass  upon  these  meadows  was  the  main  reliance  of 
the  miners  for  hay  for  their  winter  stock.  In  1865, 
Captain  Johnson,  superintendent  of  tho  Lake  Supe- 
rior Mine,  cut  fifty  tons  of  hay  upon  a  single  beaver 
meadow  on  the  main  branch  of  the  Esconauba. 

In  addition  to  the  nutriment  which  the  roots  of 
those  grasses  afford  to  the  beavers,  the  meadows  them- 
selves are  clearings  in  the  wilderness,  by  means  of 
which  the  light,  as  well  as  the  heat  of  the  sun,  is  lot 
in  upon  their  lodges. 

Beaver  trails  are  quite  numerous,  as  well  as  con- 
spicuous, along  the  margins  of  their  ponds.  They 
show  their  run-ways  back  into  the  woods,  and  the 


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IB 

BEAVER  CANALS,  MEADOWS,  AND  TRAILS.         205 

lines  on  which  they  move  their  cuttings  into  the 
ponds.  They  are  narrow,  well-beaten  paths  for  a 
short  distance  from  the  ponds,  but  soon  lose  their  dis- 
tinctness and  disappear  altogether.  They  are  chiefly 
interesting  as  indications  of  their  numbers,  and  of 
the  long  periods  of  time  each  dam  has  been  main- 
tained, and  each  pond  inhabited. 

On  the  Upper  Missouri  we  meet  with  another  form 
of  trail,  which  is  called  a  "beaver  slide."  It  is  de- 
signed to  maintain,  as  well  as  afford,  a  ready  connec- 
tion between  the  river  and  its  banks.  On  both  sides 
of  this  river,  for  miles  together,  the  banks  are  vertical, 
and  rise,  at  ordinary  stages  of  the  water,  from  three 
to  eight  feet  above  its  surface.  It  would,  consequently, 
be  impossible  for  the  beavers  to  get  out  of  the  river 
upon  the  land  except  by  excavating  a  passage  way 
through  the  bank,  from  the  river  to  the  surface,  or  by 
the  construction  of  the  inclined  or  graded  way,  known 
as  a  "  beaver  slide."  The  latter  expedient  was  adopted 
and  made  the  ordinary  run-way  to  and  from  the  river, 
and  the  bottom  lands  upon  its  border.  They  are  sim- 
ple excavations  in  the  bank,  in  the  form  of  a  narrow 
passage-way,  inclined  at  an  angle  varying  from  45°  to 
60°,  so  as  to  form  a  gradual  descent  from  a  point  a 
few  feet  back  of  the  edge  of  the  bank  to  the  level  of 
the  river.  Several  of  them  are  often  seen  in  the 
bank,  within  ten  feet  of  each  other,  as  shown  in  the 
Plate.    (Plate  XXIII.)*     They  are  first  seen  near  the 

'  In  the  foreground  in  this  engraving  is  shown  the  "  Bull  Boat" 
of  the  Upper  Missouri,  used  bj  the  Mandans,  MInnitares,  Crows, 
and  Blackfeet,  for  crossing  the  river.  It  is  made  of  a  single  raw 
hide  of  a  buffalo,  unbaired  and  stretched  over  a  dome-shaped 
frame  of  splints.  It  is  safe,  convenient,  and  portable  ;  and  it  will 
carry  two  persons. 


t      Jit 
I      I'll 

:    ii 


206 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


mouth  of  the  Big  Sioux  River,  from  which  point  to 
the  mountains  they  are  observed  in  great  numbers,  in 
places  where  beavers  are  most  numerous.  They  fur- 
nish another  conspicuous  illustration  of  the  fact  that 
they  possess  a  free  intelligence,  by  means  of  which 
they  are  enabled  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  circum- 
stances in  which  they  are  placed. 

This  great  river,  which  has  been  so  frequently  re- 
ferred to  in  these  pages,  presents  to  the  tourist  many 
striking  features.  I  am  tempted  to  make  a  digression 
for  the  purpose  of  noticing  a  few  of  them.  It  runs 
for  three  thousand  miles  through  the  great  central 
prairie  area  of  the  continent  without  being  inter- 
rupted by  a  waterfall,  or  traversed  by  a  mount- 
ain chain.  It  is  a  great  river  Irom  its  mouth  to  the 
Falls  of  the  Missouri,  which  are  within  th  ^  Rocky 
Mountain  chain ;  and  it  is  navignble  at  certain  seasons 
by  steamei's  of  the  first  class,  within  forty  miles  of  the 
falls.  In  width  it  varies  from  a  mile  and  a  half  to  a 
third  of  a  mile,  rarely  contracting  its  channel  within 
a  quarter  of  a  mile  when  its  banks  are  full.  Its  cur- 
rent, which  i'j  rated  by  river  men  at  from  four  to  five 
miles  per  hour,  exceeds,  in  rapidity,  that  of  any  other 
navigable  river  within  the  United  States.  By  means 
of  its  powerful  current  it  is  able  to  hold  in  suspension 
the  great  amount  of  earthy  materials  that  impart  to 
its  waters  their  deep  yellowish  color.  From  this  cir- 
cumstance, also,  it  derived  its  aboriginal  name,  Ne- 
sTid-ja,  which,  in  the  dialect  of  the  Kaws,  signifies 
"the  muddy  river."* 

*  "With  reference  to  the  range  of  the  Missouri  between  low 
and  high  water,  but  little  can  be  said.  It  is  about  thirty>fi .  e  feet 
at  the  mouth ;  twenty  feet  at  St.  Joseph's,  Missouri ;  and  still 


BEAVER  CANALS,  MEADOWS,  AND  TRAILS.         207 


to 
cir- 

Ner 
lifies 


Its  "bluffs"  testify  to  the  long  series  of  centuries 
during  which  this  river  has  flowed  from  the  mountains 
to  the  sea,  and  measure  the  enormous  amount  of  solid 
materials  which  it  has  transported  to  the  Mississippi 
and  thence  to  the  Gulf  For  the  first  thousand  miles 
these  bluffs  are,  upon  an  average,  upwards  of  four 
miles  apart;  for  the  second  thousand,  upwards  of 
three  miles;  and  for  the  remainder  of  the  distance  to 
the  falls,  upwards  of  one.  They  bound  the  valley  ex- 
cavated by  the  river,  and  mark  the  limital  range  of 
its  flow.  The  tops  of  the  bluffs,  which  are  on  a  level 
with  the  prairies,  are  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  and 
fifty  feet  above  the  level  of  the  river,  from  its  mouth 
to  the  confluence  of  the  Yellowstone ;  while  above  the 
latter  point  they  rise  three  hundred  feet  high  and 
upwards  for  miles  together. 

The  lands  between  the  bluffs  are  level,  rising  but 
a  few  feet  above  the  river,  and  are  called  "Bottom 

less  above,  being  at  Fort  Berton  only  about  six  feet.  Ice  dams 
in  the  spring  sometimes  occasion  great  local  rises. 

"  Its  high  water  width,  for  so  long  a  river,  is  remarkably  uni- 
form. In  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Benton  it  varies  from  five  hundred 
to  one  thousand  feet.  Near  the  mouth  of  Milk  River  it  has  in- 
creased to  fifteen  hundred  feet.  Below  the  Yellowstone  it  is 
about  two  thousand  feet.  From  ^hio  vicinity  the  river  gradually 
attains  an  average  width  of  about  three  thousand  feet,  which  it 
holds  for  some  six  hundred  miles  to  its  mouth. 

"  Its  annual  disc  large  is  about  four  trillions  of  cubic  feet,  or 
about  one-fifth  of  that  of  the  Mississippi. 

"At  Fort  Benton  it  is  two  thousand  eight  hundred  and  forty- 
five  feet  above  the  Gulf,  and  at  its  mouth,  three  hundred  and 
cighty-ono  feet." — Phynics  and  Hydraulics  of  the  Mississippi 
River.     Published  by  the  War  Department,  1861,  p.  61. 

The  June  rise  of  the  Yellowstone  is  about  ten  days  in  reaching 
St.  Louis,  or  in  moving  a  little  over  two  thousand  miles. 


208 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


Lands."  It  is  a  striking  fact  with  reference  to  these 
lands,  that  they  have  been  literally  made  by  the  river 
to  the  depth  of  its  channel  from  bluff  to  bluff;  and 
that  they  are  still  undergoing  the  process  of  being  cut 
away  and  reformed  with  each  successive  flood.  Al- 
though the  river  to-day  cuts  against  one  of  its  blu£&, 
while  the  opposite  one  may  be  four  miles  distant,  the 
time  has  been  when  it  also  impinged  on  the  oiher, — 
having  removed  in  its  course  all  the  intermediate  soil 
to  the  depth  of  its  channel.  As  it  cuts  away  on 
one  side,  it  throws  up  materials  on  its  receding  bed  in 
the  form  of  a  sand-bar,  which  is  afterward  raised  by 
the  slow  piocess  of  suri'ace  deposits  by  successive 
floods  to  the  common  level  of  the  bottom  lands.  With 
every  change  of  level  in  the  river  it  shifts  its  channel 
more  or  less,  as  the  direction  and  force  of  the  pressure 
upon  its  banks  change  with  the  rise  and  fall  of  the 
stream.  The  rapidity  with  which  this  river,  when  in 
flood,  cuts  away  its  banks,  which  it  is  seen  are  sedi- 
mentary, is  quite  remarkable.  It  is  not  uncommon 
for  a  farmer  on  the  Lower  Missouri  to  lose  forty  acres 
of  his  farm  in  the  bottom  lands  in  a  single  night.  At 
such  times  there  is  a  constant  splash  of  earth  falling 
into  the  river,  carrying  with  it  the  tallest  cottonwood- 
trees,  whose  age  measured  the  interval  since  the  river, 
cutting  its  way  in  the  opposite  direction,  had  cast  up 
the  sand-bar  upon  which  they  afterward  took  root.  I 
have  seen  trees  falling  in,  one  after  another,  while  still 
others  in  a  leaning  position  were  just  ready  to  follow. 
The  mud  deposited  on  their  foliage  soon  brings  them 
to  anchor,  after  which  they  are  stripped,  in  course  of 
time,  of  both  limbs  and  bark;  and  thus,  with  one  end 
imbedded  in  mud  and  the  other  rising  toward  the  sur- 


BEAVER   CANALS,  MEADOWS,  AND  TRAILS. 


209 


of 
end 
sur- 


face of  the  water  and  pointing  down  stream,  become 
the  "snags"  which  have  made  this  river  famous  for 
its  steamboat  disasters. 

The  river  banks  are  usually  from  five  to  eight  feet 
high  when  the  channel  is  full,  and  always  vertical. 
Any  person  falling  into  this  river,  in  time  of  Hood,  is 
pretty  certain  to  be  drowned,  unlen  9  can  reach 
a  sand-bar,  or  the  side  opposite  the  one  against  which 
the  current  is  running.* 

From  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri  to  Kansas  City, 
there  is  a  belt  of  forest  on  both  sides  of  the  river  sev- 
eral miles  wide;  but  above  this  point  the  belt  con- 
tracts rapidly  in  width,  the  prairie  coming  occasion- 
ally to  the  bluffs,  as  at  Fort  Leavenworth  and  at 
Omaha.  Above  the  last-named  place  the  forest  con- 
tinues to  decrease  to  the  confluence  of  the  Big  Sioux 
River,  after  which,  for  the  remainder  of  the  distance 
of  about  two  thousand  miles  to  the  mountains,  it  is 
confined  to  the  bottom  lands  and  the  declivities  of  the 
blujQfs.  All  without  is  open  prairie,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  narrow  belts  of  forest  along  the  margins  of 
the  tributary  streams.  For  the  last  fifteen  hundred 
miles  the  bottom  lands  are  but  partially  wooded ;  and 

*  Where  the  channel  is  narrow  and  the  current  swift  and  full, 
the  most  powerful  swimmer  is  unable  to  keep  himself  above  the 
surface  of  the  water,  its  whirling  and  eddying  motions  tending  to 
draw  him  under.  In  1862, 1  saw  five  men  drown  at  mid-day  in  this 
river  just  below  Fort  lienton,  which  is  but  thirty-six  miles  below 
the  Falls  of  the  Missoiiri.  Six  men  were  capsized  in  a  rapid  in 
a  small  boat,  and  were  one  after  the  other  soon  drawn  under. 
Of  these,  four  came  to  the  surface  once,  and  again  went  under ; 
three  came  up  a  second  time,  and  one  a  third.  He  alone  was 
saved,  by  means  of  a  small  boat,  which  went  to  their  relief  within 
two  minutes  of  the  accident. 

U 


210 


THE  AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


the  country,  in  other  respects,  is  unfavorable  for  set- 
tlement. 

The  scenery  upon  the  Mis  niri  is  monotonous  un- 
til the  confluence  of  the  Ye?<'  wstone  is  approached. 
This  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  at  the  river  level  we 
are  shut  in  from  the  magnificent  summer  landscape 
of  the  prairies,  of  which  the  eye  never  wearies;  and 
are  confined  to  the  narrow  range  of  the  bottom  lands 
and  bordering  bluffs,  which  have  few  attractive  feat- 
ures. One  of  the  most  remarkable  regions  of  the 
eaith  is  thus  traversed  without  being  seen.  From  the 
old  vilii\ge  of  the  Mandans,  and  particularly  above 
the  Great  Bend  of  the  Missouri,  the  scenery  changes 
and  assume?  more  imposing  forms.  First  there  are 
high  banks  of  indurated  clay,  seamed  with  lignite, 
which  rise  three  hundred  feet  high  and  assume  gro- 
tesque architectural  forms  from  the  effects  of  rain  and 
frost.  These,  with  more  or  less  uniformity  in  appear- 
ance, border  the  river  for  five  hundred  miles  until  the 
Bad  Lands  are  entered,  which,  commencing  about  fifty 
miles  above  the  confluence  of  Milk  River,  continue  for 
upwards  of  three  hundred  miles.  The  "Bad  Lands" 
(mauvaises  terres),  so  called,  are  sterile,  rounded  mud 
hills,  of  a  dingy-brown  color,  thickly  studded  together, 
and  rising,  with  deep  chasms  between,  two  hundred  or 
more  leet  high.  They  are  composed  of  adhesive  clay, 
which,  softening  to  a  considerable  depth  under  every 
rain,  are  destitute  of  every  species  of  vegetation  ex- 
cept an  occasional  sage-tree  or  dwarf  cedar,  and  a 
straggling  cactus.  This  assemblage  of  conical  hills 
presents  the  most  dreary  landscape  within  the  limits 
of  our  Republic,  the  deserts  of  the  Colorado  Basin  not 
excepted.     Silence  and  desolation  reign  throughout 


BEAVER   CANALS,  MEADOWS,  AND  TRAILS.         211 


a- 

d. 

ve 
pe 
nd 
ids 
;afc- 
the 
the 
»ove 
ages 
1  are 
nite, 
gro- 
L  and 
pear- 
ilthe 

t  fifty 
uefor 
ands" 
mud 
ether, 
red  or 
clay, 
every 
ion  ex- 
and  a 
hills 
3  limits 
isin  not 
)Ughout 


il 


their  area.  They  form  a  narrow  belt  along  this  por- 
tion of  the  Missouri,  from  which  they  stretch  south- 
ward across  the  Yellowstone,  and  terminate  in  the 
Black  Hills  in  the  central  part  of  Nebraska. 

About  one  hundred   miles  from  the   foot  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  we  find  the  most  remarkable  forma- 
tion upon  the  river,  and  the  most  striking  scenery 
upon  its   borders.      Lewis   and   Clark,   who   passed 
through  this  region  in  1805,  called  this  formation  the 
"White   Walls" — a  not   inapt   designation.     Prince 
Maximilian^  in  his  "Travels  in  North  America,"  also 
describes  them;  but  any  description,  however  minute, 
must  fail  to  convey  more  than  a  faint  gemiral  impres- 
sion of  their  actual  appearance.     They  are  continuous 
for  about  forty  miles,  first  appearing  as  the  north 
bluflF  of  the  river,  then  upon  both  sides,  and  afterward 
on  the  north  side  alone.     The  river  cuts  through  the 
formation,  which  Is  a  whitish  friable  sandstone,  so 
slightly  cemented  that  small  pieces  are  readily  pul- 
verized with  the  fingers,  and  yet  it  retains  the  form 
of  solid  rock.  Its  opposite  bluffs  here  approach  within 
half  a  mile  of  each  other;  and  rising  about  two  hun- 
dred feet  high,  are  buried  but  a  few  feet  below  the 
level  surface  of  the  prairie.     The  extraordinary  ap- 
pearances of  these  "walls"  are  the  effects,  in  a  great 
measure,  of  frost  and   rain,  which,  having  disinte- 
grated portions  of  the  rock,  have  wrought  out  the 
marvelous  results  presented  to  the  eye.    A  steep  bank 
first  rises  from  the  river,  which  is  composed  of  the 
comminuted  materials  of  this  rock,  colored  a  dingy 
brown  by  washings  from  the  soil  above.    This,  ascend- 
ing about  a  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  at  an  angle  of  60° 
or  more,  is  destitute  of  vegetation,  and  has  a  smooth, 


212 


THE  AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


uniform  surface.  Out  of  this  bank  riHes  the  "White 
Walls"  in  perpendicular  cliffs  from  fifty  to  seventy 
feet  high.  In  some  places,  masses  of  this  rock  abut 
against  the  facf  )f  the  *  ^utf;  in  other  places,  detached 
masses  i '-e  e\^..c^  u,-  c  \  and  sometimtd  on  three 
sides;  and  in  till  't!'.  places,  solitary  walls,  in  the 
form  of  masonry,  re  in  *  nendous  magnitude.  Ra- 
vines here  and  there  breaK  t.irough  the  formation  at 
right  angles  with  the  river,  exposing  two  and  some- 
times three  sides  of  a  great  square;  while  in  other 
places  there  are  wide  openings  in  the  rock,  more  or 
less  parallel,  which  assume  somewhat  the  appearance 
of  great  streets.  To  complete  the  illusion,  there  are, 
rents  in  some  of  the  narrow  walls  having  the  sem- 
blance of  gateways,  doors,  and  windows.  The  effects 
of  atmospheric  causes  in  disintegrating  this  unequally 
cemented  sandstone  have  been  extremely  curious,  giv- 
ing rise  to  every  conceivable  form.  Buttresses,  tur- 
rets, pinnacles,  and  spires  meet  the  eye  on  every  side, 
together  with  massive  walls,  rent  and  perforated,  and 
standing  like  piles  of  masonry.  In  the  distance  the 
effect  is  truly  imposing,  suggesting  very  naturally  the 
presence  of  great  cities  in  ruins. 

Some  of  the  detached  masses  have  been  christened 
by  tourists,  among  which  are  the  "Castle,"  the  "Cathe- 
dral," and  the  "Steamboat."  The  last  is  a  huge  pile 
of  whitish  rock,  exposed  on  three  sides  for  about 
five  hundred  or  more  feet,  and,  rising  about  sixty  feet 
in  height,  pre^jents  the  general  form  of  a  Missouri 
steamer,  with  its  saloon  deck,  smoke-stacks,  and  pilot- 
house traced  in  dim  outline. 

In  addition  to  the  white  sandstone,  of  which  nine- 
tenths  of  this  formation  is  composed,  there  is  another 


BEAYEk  CANALS,  MEADOWS,  AND  TRAILS.         213 


jtened 

Jathe- 

;e  pile 

about 

ty  feet 

Missouri 

pilot- 

nine- 
Lnotber 


itone  of  a  eJd'sh-brown  color,  uie  nature  of  which  I 
was  i.jt  able  to  ascertain,  wliich  asHumes  not  less  re- 
markable forms.  It  crops  out  in  the  form  of  narrow, 
long,  ind  low  stone  walls,  with  horizontal  lines  of  strat- 
ification or  seams  distinctly  visible;  and  vertical  rents 
here  and  there,  from  top  to  bottom,  which  give  to  it 
the  appearance  of  dry  stone  walls.  In  some  places, 
gfitewa}  s  through  ^hem,  formed  with  the  most  perfect 
regularity,  are  seen.  These  brown-stone  walls  run 
parallel  with  the  river  in  some  places,  and  in  others 
diagonally  up  its  banks.' 

In  Arabia  Petrroa  there  is  a  white  wall  formation 
very  similar  to  the  one  here  imperfectly  described.  Iii 
future  years,  when  the  Upper  Missouri  region  becomes 
more  accessible,  a  summer  expedition  to  the  "white 
walls"  will  abundantly  reward  the  tourist. 

This  river  is  also  celebrated  for  its  game.  All  of  the 
principal  animals  of  the  North  American  Continent 
are  found  upon  its  banks.  The  buffalo,  elk,  red  and 
black-tailed  deer,  antelope,  grizzly  and  black   bear, 

*■  Lieutenant  Grover,  after  first  referring  to  the  "white  walls," 
speaks  of  this  brown  rock  as  volcanic.  "  The  bluffs,"  he  remarks, 
"are  now  more  abrupt,  and  crowded  the  river;  colonnades  and 
odd  detached  pillars  of  partially  cemented  sand,  capped  with  huge 
globes  of  light  brownish  sandstone,  tower  up  from  their  steep 
sides  to  the  height  of  a  hundred  feet  or  more  abow  the  water. 
Then  the  action  of  the  weather  upon  the  bluffs  in  the  background 
has  worn  them  into  a  thousand  grotesque  forms,  while  lower  down 
their  faces  seams  of  volcanic  rock  from  three  to  six  feet  thick, 
with  a  dip  nearly  .ertical,  and  no  uniform  strike,  beaten  nnd 
cracked  by  the  weather,  rising  from  six  to  eight  feet  above  the 
surface,  run  up  and  down  the  steep  faces  and  projecting  shoulders 
of  the  cliff — a  most  perfect  imitation  of  dry  stone  walls." — 
Physics  and  Hydraulics  of  the  Mississippi  River,  p.  58. 


i'*^t 


214 


THE  AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


beaver,  and  the  gray  wolf  are  seen  from  the  mouth  of 
Cannon-ball  River,  where  game  first  becomes  abund- 
ant, through  all  the  intermediate  region  to  the  mount- 
ains, with  the  exception  of  the  Bad  Lands. 

Buffaloes  are  the  most  numerous,  and  are  often  seen 
in  herds  of  several  thousands.  They  are  easily  shot 
from  the  deck  of  a  steamboat,  while  swimming  across 
the  river.  However  eager  a  }3eraon  may  be  for  buf- 
falo-shooting, he  will  find  it  in  riuch  ample  measure  on 
this  river  that  he  will  finally  put  aside  his  gun  from 
mere  weariness.' 

The  grizzly  bear  is  the  great  animal  of  North  Amer- 
ica, not  excepting  the  buffalo  or  the  moose.  We  first 
saw  this  monster  among  the  "white  walls,"  galloping 
along  the  sloping  banks  beneath  them.  His  bulky 
and  powerful  form  gave  him  a  dangerous  as  well  as 
commanding  appearance. 

Among  the  lesser  animals  upon  this  river  is  the 
prairie  dog,  a  rodent  resembling  the  squirrel.  We 
stopped  at  one  of  their  "villages,"  as  a  collection  of 
their  burrows  is  familiarly  called,  and  were  not  a 
little  surprised  at  the  number  and  spread  of  their 
habitations. 

The  antelope  is  the  most  beautiful  animal  of  the 
plains.     We  often  saw  them  in  small  herds  of  one  or 


*  When  the  6rst  pair  of  buffaloes  had  been  shot  and  taken  on 
board  the  steanaer,  at  the  time  I  went  up  the  river,  the  mate  called 
upon  the  trappers  on  board  for  volunteers  to  dress  the  animals. 
Two  men  stepped  forward,  one  of  them  a  Frenchman,  as  might 
have  been  expected,  but  the  other,  strange  to  say,  was  a  Greek, 
born  at  Athens,  as  he  afterward  informed  me.  For  two  years  he 
had  been  pursuing  the  vocation  of  a  trapper  in  the  Rocky  Mount- 
ains. He  found  his  way  to  New  Orleans  in  a  merchant  vessel, 
and  thence  went  to  the  mountains  as  an  adventurer. 


BEAVER  CANALS,  MEADOWS,  AND  TRAILS.         215 


ihoi 

und- 
juntr 

seen 

shot 
icross 
p  buf- 
ire  on 
I  from 

Amer- 
iTe  first 
Uopitig 
I  bulky 
well  as 

p  is  the 
1.     We 
ction  of 
not  a 
of  their 

a.1  of  the 
)f  one  or 

d  taken  on 
mate  called 
le  animals, 
n,  as  might 
as  a  Greek, 
^vo  years  he 
)cky  Moxint- 
hant  vessel, 


two  hundred.  Their  tiesli,  upon  which  we  oocusion- 
ally  fuivsted,  is  superior  to  that  of  the  elk  or  the  buf- 
falo. Elks  were  frequently  seen  in  small  herds  of 
twenty  or  thirty. 

Another  characteristic  animal  of  the  Upper  Mis- 
souri is  the  mountain  sheep.  They  were  formerly  found 
as  low  down  as  tho  conHuence  of  Cannon-ball  River, 
but  nov  they  are  rarely  seen  below  the  Bad  Lands. 
We  first  saw  them  among  the  "white  walls,"  in  Hocks 
of  from  ten  to  twenty.  They  are  of  a  brown  color, 
somewhat  larger  than  the  common  sheep,  and  of  tim- 
orous dispoflition.  Along  the  faces  of  the  steepest 
cliffs,  where  the  slightest  footing  can  be  had,  thoy  run 
with  assurance  and  rapidity,  working  their  way  up 
through  places  apparently  impassable. 

Fio.  22. 


Trails  of  Mountain  Sheep  on  Bluffs  near  conilueuce  of  Muscle  bla-U  Uiver. 

Above  the  "white  walls,"  where  the  bluffs  rise  in 
places  three  hundred  feet  high,  the  footprints  or  trails 
of  the  mountain  sheep  are  very  frequently  seen  on 
their  steep  declivities.  A  representation  of  these  trails 
is  given  in  the  figure  (Fig.  22).  The  banks  rise  pre- 
cipitously, apparently  at  an  angle  of  70°  or  80°,  with  a 
smooth  surface  and  devoid  of  vegetation.  No  animal 
found  in  the  region,  except  the  mountain  sheep,  could 
either  ascend  or  move  in  a  horizontal  line  upon  such 
bluflfs  and  maintain  his  footing.      These  footprints 


216 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


I 


api)ear  to  be  a  HerieH  of  nltcrnating  footholdH  nunk  in 
the  bank  by  long  use,  rather  than  continuouH  depres- 
sionw  in  tlie  form  of  a  Hunken  trail.  Their  lines  alon<]; 
the  bluflrt  can  be  seei.  oh  distinctly  in  the  clear  atmos- 
phere of  this  region,  for  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  as  a  chalk 
line  upon  a  black-board  immediately  before  the  eyes. 
The  preceding  diagram,  in  two  sections,  is  from  a 
rough  sketcli  made  while  we  were  passing  the  bluffs  at 
the  distance  of  a  few  hundred  feet.  It  seems  probable 
that  tlie  mountain  sheep  resort  to  these  precipitous 
banks  for  safety  as  well  as  rest,  since  while  upon  their 
dizzy  declivities  they  could  enjoy  the  consciousness  of 
perfect  security.' 

From  this  long  digression  I  return  once  more  to  the 
beaver,  to  make  a  brief  reference  to  the  connection  of 
the  great  river  systems  of  North  America  with  the 
spread  of  this  animal.  The  true  habitat  of  the  beaver 
is  near  the  sources  of  streams,  where  they  are  small 
and  easily  spanned  with  dams.  This  transfers  them 
to  the  mountain  and  elevated  areas  as  their  appropr*. 
ate  home.     And  yet,  as  they  are  migrating  animals, 

'  The  least  reputable  animal  of  the  Missourj  rs  the  gray  wolf, 
the  largest  of  his  genus  in  North  America,  and  the  most  insatiable 
of  the  carnivorous  genera.  They  are  very  numerous,  following 
the  buffalo  in  their  migrations,  and  preying  upon  their  young 
as  well  as  upon  the  wounded  and  decrepid.  The  wariness  of 
the  wolf  was  well  illustrated  to  us,  one  day,  by  his  manner  of 
drinking.  Wo  saw  one  jump  down  the  bank  of  the  river,  which 
was  about  five  feet  high,  upon  a  piece  of  fallen  earth  just  above 
the  water,  and  lap  the  water  for  about  five  seconds,  and  then  jump 
up  again  upon  the  bank  to  see  whether  any  one  was  approaching. 
After  this  ho  returned  and  drank  again  for  the  same  length  of 
time,  and  again  ascended  the  bank  to  repeat  his  observation. 
These  proceedings  were  repeated  six  or  eight  times  before  his 
thirst  was  satisfied. 


BEAVER  CANALS,  MEADOWS,  AND  TRAILS.         217 

they  have  but  to  surrender  themselves  to  tho  current 
of  the  rivers,  the  Missouri  for  example,  to  [)roi)agrtte 
themselves  over  u  large  part  of  the  United  States. 
With  this  river,  and  commencing  at  its  source,  they 
could  reach,  in  time,  every  part  of  the  area  between 
the  Alleghany  and  the  Rocky  Mountains:  and  in  like 
manner  with  the  Siskatchewun,  commencing  their 
spread  from  the  same  mountains,  they  could  reach  the 
chain  of  lakes,  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  all  their  tribu- 
taries upon  a  line  of  thousands  of  miles.  Tiio  wide 
habitat  of  the  beaver  is  thus  explained  by  his  aquatic 
habits  and  the  remarkable  connection  of  the  river 
systems  of  the  continent. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

JilODE  OF  TRAPPING  BEAVER. 

Other  Habits  of  the  Beaver — Indications  of  Age — Tame  Benvers — Nursed 
by  Indian  Women — Building  and  Repairing  Dams — Oreat  Beaver  Dis- 
tricts— Hudson's  Bay  Company — American  Fur  Company — Private  Ad- 
venturers— The  Steel  Trap — Trapping  Season — Trapping  at  the  Dam — 
At  the  Lodge — Traps  sprung — Whether  the  Beaver  when  caught  bites  off 
his  Leg — Trapping  under  the  Ice — Catching  in  a  Pen — Trapping  Bank 
Beavers — Catching  in  Burrows — Trappers  as  a  Class — Custom  of  hang- 
ing up  Skulls — Statistics  of  Fur  Trade — Early  and  Recent  Exportations — 
Immense  Numbers  of  Beavers. 


Before  taking  up  the  subject  of  trapping,  there  are 
u  few  remaining  facts  relating  to  the  habits  of  the 
beaver  which  it  may  be  well  to  embody  in  a  general 
statement.  His  personal  acts,  as  far  as  they  can  be 
ascertained,  are  not  less  essential  to  the  completeness 
of  his  natural  history  than  his  works,  or  his  anatomi- 
cal structure.  Our  knowledge  of  these  acts,  although 
more  ample  than  in  relation  to  most  animals,  is 
still  very  limited;  wherefore  each  additional  item 
must  be  considered  in  the  light  of  a  substantial  gain. 
Some  of  the  facts  about  to  be  stated  are  upon  the  au- 
thority of  the  Missouri  and  Lake  Superior  trappers, 
others  were  obtained  from  Indian  sources,  and  the  re- 
mainder were  derived  from  personal  observation. 

The  beaver,  in  moving,  never  steps  backward,  but 

turns  round,  as  his  tail  drags  on  the  ground.     While 

walking,  his  back  arches  slightly;  when  standing  still, 

its  curvature  is  much  increased.      In  running,  his 

(218) 


MODE  OF  TRAPPING  BEAVER. 


219 


quickest  movement  is  by  a  gallop,  or  a  series  of  jumps, 
which  take  him  along,  notwithstanding  his  clumsy 
frame,  at  a  rapid  rate.  When  swimming  with  a 
part  of  his  head  out  of  water,  the  tail  is  extended 
motionless  behind;  but  when  he  is  entirely  under, 
and  swimming  at  the  most  rapid  rate,  it  is  swung 
from  side  to  side  with  a  peculiar  diagonal  stroke; 
that  is,  it  is  raised  in  a  partly  vertical  position, 
and  then  moved  upward  and  to  the  side,  when 
the  relative  position  of  the  edges  of  the  tail  are  re- 
versed, and  it  is  swung  in  the  opposite  direction.  It 
is  the  precise  movement  by  which  a  boat  is  sculled 
with  an  oar.  I  have  not  seen  this  tail  movement,  but 
make  the  statement  upon  the  authority  of  Indians  by 
whom  it  has  frequently  been  observed.  By  means  of 
his  tail  used  as  a  scull,  and  his  webbed  hind  feet,  the 
propelling  power  of  the  beaver  in  swimming  is  very 
great.  They  carry  small  stones  and  earth  with  their 
paws,  holding  them  under  the  throat,  and  walking  on 
their  hind  feet.  Large  stones,  weighing  five  or  six 
pounds,  of  which  size  they  are  found  on  dams,  they 
push  along  in  diflFerent  ways — with  the  shoulder,  with 
the  hip,  and  with  the  tail.  They  work  the  tail  under 
a  stone,  and  give  it  a  throw  forward.  In  moving  ma- 
terials of  various  kinds  they  are  very  ingenious  and 
persevering.  It  is  said  by  the  trappers,  with  how 
much  of  truth  I  cannot  affirm,  that  they  will  place 
earth  and  sod  upon  each  other's  backs  and  tails,  to  be 
thus  tranf  ferred  to  the  dam.  They  handle  a  stick 
with  their  paws  as  dextrously  as  a  man  would  with 
his  hands,  turning  it  at  pleasure  while  cutting  it  in 
two  or  eating  off  the  bark.  Taking  one  end  of  a 
short  cutting  in  their  teeth,  and  rising  up  on  their 


220 


THE  AMERICAN  BEAVER. 


iiii 


hind  feet  so  as  to  bring  it  across  their  back,  they  will 
carry  it,  with  the  opposite  end  dragging  on  the  ground, 
for  a  considerable  distance,  walking  nearly  erect  on 
their  hind  feet.  Their  tracks  in  the  snow  are  often 
seen,  with  the  marks  of  a  bush  or  limb  by  their  side, 
showing  that  it  was  held  in  the  mouth  and  passed 
across  the  shoulder,  the  ends  dragging  on  the  snow 
upon  the  side  opposite  to  that  on  which  it  was  held. 
They  have  also  been  seen  swimming  in  their  ponds, 
carrying  small  branches  in  the  same  manner. 

In  cutting  down  trees,  they  either  sit  or  stand  upon 
their  hind  legs,  and  placing  their  fore  feet  against  the 
tree,  gnaw  round  and  round,  making  the  first  incision 
about  three  inches  wide  and  an  inch  deep,  and  each 
successive  one  wider  and  deeper  until  the  tree  falls. 
I  have  found  these  trees  in  all  stages  of  their  progress 
in  cutting.  Three  beavers  have  been  seen  at  work 
together  gnawing  at  the  same  tree,  which  is  as  many 
as  could  conveniently  find  a  place.  With  this  num- 
ber, two  nights  at  most  would  give  ample  time  to  fell 
a  tree  a  foot  in  diameter.  After  the  tree  falls,  they 
retire  for  a  short  time,  until  the  woods  are  again  still, 
when  the  whole  family  come  out  and  commence  cut- 
ting oflf  and  reducing  the  limbs  to  short  lengths  to  be 
carried  to  the  pond,  and  thence  to  the  winter  pile.  A 
small  portion  only  of  the  limbs  of  a  large  tree  ar? 
used.  They  select  such  as  are  most  convenient  for 
cutting  and  removing,  or  are  preferred  for  other 
reasons.  Small  trees,  a  few  inches  in  diameter,  are 
removed  bodily.  The  number  of  trees  of  different 
Rizes  cut  down  each  season  in  a  well  stocked  beaver 
district  is  surprisingly  great.  In  places  they  obstruct 
the  passage  through  the  woods,  although   his  occurs 


itfODE  OF  TRAPPING   BEAVER. 


221 


infrequently.  While  the  surveys  on  the  Marquette  and 
Ontonagon  Railroad  were  progressing,  a  small  party 
encamped  upon  the  main  branch  of  the  Eaconauba, 
near  its  source,  counted  nineteen  treefalls,  which  they 
heard  in  a  single  night,  between  the  hours  of  seven 
and  twelve  o'clock.  Along  the  margins  of  streams 
inhabited  by  beavers,  the  stubs  of  trees  cut  down  by 
them  are  very  numerous.  They  are  met  at  almost 
every  step.  This  might  be  expected,  since  a  number 
of  years  are  required  to  obliterate  the  evidences  of 
their  work.  Many  trees  partially  cut  and  abandoned 
are  also  found,  as  well  as  many  that  have  lodged  in 
falling. 

The  usual  number  of  beavers  in  a  litter,  as  else- 
where stated,  is  from  three  to  five,  but  it  is  occasion- 
ally greater.  William  Bass,  before  mentioned,  found 
eight  young  beavers  in  a  foetal  state  in  one  female, 
and  eight  young  beavers  born  alive  in  a  single  lodge. 
He  had  also  found  six  young  ones  a  number  of  times, 
and  all  the  numbers  below  this  down  to  a  single 
young  beaver.  With  reference  to  tho  duration  of 
their  lives  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain  any  facts  tending 
to  establish  its  limit.  There  are  no  indications  to  be 
found  on  their  teeth  by  which  their  age  can  bf;  de- 
termined; but  their  tails  grow  stout  with  age,  and 
become  grayish  or  light  colored  on  the  under  hide. 
Their  teeth  file  down  and  lose  their  sharpness,  and 
they  become  lean  and  their  flpsh  tough  as  they  grow 
old;  but  these  are  relative  indications  only.  Bass  in- 
formed me  that  he  once  caught  a  pait  of  a  beaver's  foot 
in  a  trap,  taking  four  of  the  five  claws;  and  that  eight 
years  afterward  he  caught  a  beaver  in  the  same  trap- 
ping district  with  the  corresponding  foot  mutilated  in 


222 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


a  manner  so  exactly  agreeing  with  it  that  he  felt  per- 
suaded it  was  the  same  beaver.  This  would  have 
made  him  not  less  than  eleven  years  old.  He  had 
also  seen  others  apparently  several  years  older  than 
this.  From  such  imperfect  data  as  they  possess,  the 
Indians  believe  he  Mwm  from  hrehre  to  fifteen  years. 
Young  beavers  are  easily  domesticated;  and  al- 
though active  and  mischievous,  they  are  affectionate 
and  harmless.  When  captured  very  young,  the  In- 
dian women,  if  they  desire  their  preservation,  nurse 
them  until  they  are  old  enough  to  feed  upon  bark.  At 
six  weeks  of  age,  a  young  beaver  will  wean  itself  and 
take  to  bark.  When  brought  up  in  an  Indian  family 
they  become  very  much  attached  to  all  its  members, 
and  are  entirely  contented  in  their  domesticated  con- 
dition. A  Missouri  trapper  mentioned  to  me  the  cir- 
cumstance of  a  young  beaver  captured  by  his  partner, 
and  nursed  by  the  wife  of  the  latter,  who  was  an  In- 
dian woman,  that  followed  them  on  their  trapping 
rounds,  wherever  they  went,  for  several  successive 
years.  They  shifted  their  camp  frequently,  and 
moved  long  distances,  always  taking  the  beaver  with 
them  as  one  of  the  family.  When  they  commenced 
breaking  up  their  camp  he  understood  the  movement 
immediately,  and  showed,  by  unmistakable  signs,  his 
desire  to  accompany  them.  After  securing  two  packs 
upon  a  horse,  he  was  placed  on  top,  between  them, 
which  was  his  usual  place,  and  rode  for  miles,  from 
c.irer>  to  ;;\mp,  on  many  different  occasions.  When- 
evei  thpy  stopped,  he  fed  himself  upon  bark,  but  he 
v/oaicl  «  a--  Ay-Ar  food  v  well.  He  soon  manifested  a 
gi'eti.  pufssioii  for  sugar,  and  whenever  it  was  shown 
1    nim  he  was  extrei  lely  troublesome  until  his  desire 


MODE  OP  TRAPPING  BEAVER. 


223 


was  gratified.  He  was  particularly  attached  to  the 
half-blood  boy  with  whom  he  was  nursed  and  grew 
up — following  him  on  all  occasions  wherever  he  went. 
He  was  also  a  great  favorite  in  the  camp  of  the  trap- 
pers, as  the  care  taken  of  him  sufficiently  shows. 

Beavers  are  often  seen  sunning  themselves  on  the 
bank  of  a  stream,  lying  side  by  side,  but  head  and 
tail:  their  relative  positions  seeming  to  indicate  a 
double  degree  of  watchfulness.  When  they  come 
out  of  the  water  and  intend  to  rest,  they  first  dry 
or  drip  themselves;  after  which  they  comb  the  hair 
about  their  heads  with  their  paws,  and  with  tl^e 
extra  claws  on  the  hind  feet  they  comb  each  side  of 
their  bodies  alternately.  Occasionally  they  indulge 
themselves  at  play,  for  which  a  formal  preparation  is 
made.  After  selecting  a  suitable  place  upon  dry 
ground  near  the  pond  or  stream,  they  void  their  cas- 
toreum  here  and  there  upon  the  grass,  and,  in  the 
musky  atmosphere  thus  created,  spend  some  hours  at 
play  or  basking  in  the  sun.*  The  trappers  call  these 
pliiy-grounds  "Musk  Bogs."  Two  or  three  of  thent 
are  often  seen  at  play  in  the  water — diving,  swin 
ming  around,  and  ducking  each  other. 

In  building  a  dam  in  deep  water  they  common,  c 
with  brush,  preferring  alder,  from  the  small  amount  jf 
its  foliage,  which  they  cut  on  the  adjoining  banks.  .  d 
move  by  water,  holding  it  by  their  teeth,  to  the  ]-,ace 
selected.  The  brush  is  arranged  in  parallel  courses, 
as  near  as  may  be,  lengthwise  with  the  flow  of  the 


*  The  castorcum  sacs  are  inclosed  in  muscular  cavities,  so  that 
a  portion  of  their  contents  can  probably  be  voided  at  the  pleaeurt- 
of  the  animal. 


I 


1 ' 


224 


THE  AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


stream,  and  with  the  large  ends  facing  the  current. 
It  is  begun  literally  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  and 
the  first  courses  are  sunk  to  the  bottom  by  successive 
deposits  upon  them.  I  have  seen  such  dams  when 
first  commenced,  and  when  the  brush  filled  but  a 
small  ijart  of  the  channel. 

At  first  the  brush  makes  a  loose  dam,  through 
which  the  water  flows  without  sensible  obstruction; 
but  when  the  materiak,  by  their  increase  in  quantity, 
begin  to  check  the  flow  of  the  water  and  to  experi- 
ence, in  consequence  an  increase  of  pressure,  they 
commence  carrying  in  and "  depositing  upon  them 
earth,  sods,  and  stoues^  for  down-weight  to  anchor 
them,  as  well  as  to  fill  up  the  interstices.  The  first 
season  the  beavers  conteiit  themselves  with  a  low 
dam,  rising  about  a  foot  above  the  original  level  of  the 
water,  and  afterward  raise  it  from  year  to  year  until 
it  reaches  its  natural  limitations.  In  this  manner  the 
small  dams  on  the  main  branch  of  the  Esconauba, 
near  its  sources,  were  constructed.  For  several  miles 
this  stream  passes  through  comparatively  level  land, 
with  a  channel  about  thirty  feet  wide  and  from  one  to 
two  feet  deep,  and  with  defined  banks  about  three  feet 
high.  Dams  are  found  at  short  intervals  upon  its  entire 
course,  and  also  upon  its  small  tributaries;  but  those 
upon  the  former  are  short,  low,  and  inferior  struc- 
tures. Beaver  meadows  border  this  river  continu- 
ously for  miles.  As  places  of  concealment,  they  are 
equivalent  to  thousands  of  burrows.  These  meadows 
show  of  themselves  how  completely  the  stream  has  been 
appropriated,  in  past  times,  for  beaver  habitation. 

The  persevering  industry  of  beavers  in  repairing 
their  dams   is   well  established.     Mcny   successive 


MODE  OF  TRAPPING  BEAVER. 


225 


breaches  must  be  made  in  these  structures  before  they 
abandon  the  work  of  their  restoration;  and  even  after 
deserting  the  place,  either  they  or  other  beavers  are 
sure  to  return  when  circumstances  become  favorable. 
The  instances  are  rare  in  which  they  are  seen,  for 
any  length  of  time,  while  engaged  upon  this  work. 
Captain  Daniel  Wilson  informed  me  that  he  had  seen 
beavers  at  work  on  the  Grass  Lake  dam,  making 
ordinary  repairs,  on  several  different  occasions,  while 
watching  at  night  for  deer,  in  one  of  the  trees  grow- 
ing in  its  crest.  They  came  down  to  the  dam  singly, 
and  swam  along  its  line  from  one  end  to  the  other. 
When  any  work  seemed  to  be  needed,  each  one,  upon 
his  own  motion  and  without  any  concert  witl  otittrs, 
devoted  himself  to  the  task  of  setting  it  right.  They 
brought  sticks  in  their  mouths,  and  mud  with  their 
paws  held  under  the  throat.  When  these  were  ar- 
ranged ami  the  mud  deposited  upon  them,  they  gave 
the  latter  a  heavy  stroke  with  the  tail  to  pack  it 
firmly  in  its  place.  Four  or  five  beavers  came  down 
each  night,  at  intervals  of  half  an  hour  apart;  each 
and  all  of  whom  performed  more  or  less  work  upon 
the  dam,  and  did  it  in  the  same  manner.  One  night, 
while  I  was  watching  upon  the  same  dam,  the  first 
beaver  made  his  ajppearance  isbout  eleven  o'clock,  and 
swam  across  the  p<Mad  near  the  crest  of  the  dam,  com- 
ing within  a  few  jJeet  of  tl^  place  where  I  wm  par- 
tially concealed.  HoTing  discovered  the  intrusion,  he 
went  under  immediately,  giving  the  alarm  signal  with 
his  tail.  After  this  he  went  behind  the  grass  island 
upon  which  the  lodge  represented  in  Plate  XIII.  is 
situated,  and  repeated  these  signals  at  intervals  for 
more  than  an  hour;  thus  preventing  other  beavers 

16 


imai 


226 


TOE  AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


I.  :';■ 


f  i 


i     -^': 


^ 


from  showing  themselves  that  night  near  the  dam.  By 
cutting  their  dams  and  lowering  their  ponds,  they  are 
easily  compelled  to  come  out  of  their  lodges  to  dis- 
cover the  cause.  But  it  is  not  as  easy  to  witness, 
undiscovered^  the  process  of  their  repair.  When  a 
branch  of  tlie  Marquette  and  Ontonagon  Railroad 
was  extended  to  the  Esconauba  River,  in  1862, 
dams  number  11  and  12  were  cut  through,  and 
abandoned  in  cons^^quence  by  their  proprietors.  Two 
years  afterward,  this  end  of  the  road  being  disused,  a 
pair  of  beavers  returned  to  the  lower  pond  and  re- 
paired the  dam.  With  the  hope  of  witnessing  the 
process  of  repairing  a  dam,  several  large  openings 
were  made  in  it  to  draw  off  a  part  of  the  water;  a 
scaffold  was  erected  in  one  of  the  trees  overlooking 
these  breaches,  und  at  nightfall  my  friend  Johnson 
and  myself  weve  established  in  this  lookout  for  the 
night  About  one  o'clock,  two  beavers  came  down 
together  to  ascertain  the  cause  of  the  lowering  of  their 
pond,  and  to  repair  the  mischief;  but  they  discovered 
us  in  our  imperfect  concealment,  when  within  a  few 
feet  of  the  dam,  and  avoided  coming  any  nearer. 
They  remained  swimming  about  the  pond,  with  a  part 
of  their  heads  above  the  water,  for  about  an  hour,  and 
being  afraid  to  undertake  the  work,  they  then  retired. 
In  the  clear  atmosphere  of  this  region  you  can  almosi'. 
read  print  by  the  light  of  the  moon.  The  ripples  in 
the  water,  made  by  the  beavers,  were  seen  by  us  before 
the  animals  themselves  were  discerned.  These,  two 
were  probably  the  sole  occupants  of  the  pond,  where 
they  had  shortly  before  established  themselves  for  the 
winter.  Their  presence  also  tends  to  show  that  they 
live  in  pairs  and  families,  and  not  in  colonies  or  com- 
munities. 


MODE  OF  TRAPPING  BEAVKR. 


227 


a 
id 
2, 
nd 
wo 
I,  a 
re- 
the 
ings 
r;  a 
king 
nson 
,r  the 
|down 
their 
[vered 
|a  few 
learer. 

apar*- 
ar,  and 
Retired, 
almost 

pies  in 
before 

;8e  two 
I,  where 

for  the 
lat  they 

or  com- 


It  lias  elsewhere  been  stated  that  beavers  never  eat 
the  bark  of  evergreen  trees,  although  they  cut  down 
pine  and  spruce  in  certain  places.  Pine-trees  have  been 
found  cut  down  in  Oregon,  without  showing  a  limb  or 
a  twig  removed.  They  cut  the  lir-tree,  commonly 
called  the  balsam-fir,  in  the  Lake  Superior  region, 
generally  taking  the  smallest.  I  have  short  cuttings 
of  this  fir — single  cuttings  made  from  single  young 
trees,  trimmed  of  their  branches.  The  Indians  affirm 
that  they  are  cut  for  the  balsam.  Whether  beavers 
eat  it,  my  informants  were  unable  to  state;  but  they 
believe  it  is  used  to  heal  their  wounds;  with  how 
much  of  truth  I  cannot  say.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
evergreen  ti*ees  are  cut  for  some  other  purpose  than 
their  bark,  but  with  what  object  appears  to  be  as  yet 
unknown;  unless  it  be  for  their  gums  and  mosses, 
as  elsewhere  suggested. 

A  knowledge  of  the  habits  of  beavers  is  neces- 
sary to  the  trapper  to  enable  him  Ruccessfully  to  pur- 
sue his  vocation.  During  the  aboriginal  period,  this 
animal  was  of  no  use  except  for  his  Hesh,  which  was 
not  of  much  request;  and  the  Indians  had  no  method 
of  taking  him  except  by  the  bow  and  arrow.  After 
the  colonization  of  North  America  commenced,  a  new 
value  was  given  to  the  beaver  for  his  fur,  which  was 
chiefly  used,  as  is  well  known,  for  making  hats.  From 
their  excessive  numbers  and  wide  distribution,  their 
pelts  were  among  the  first,  and  for  a  number  of  years 
the  largest,  exportations  of  the  colonists.  The  settlers 
as  well  as  the  Indians  united  in  the  business  of  trap- 
ping, which  they  pursued  with  such  diligence  that, 
about  the  year  1700,  beaver  pelts  ceased  to  be  ex- 
ported, to  any  considerable  extent,  from  the  New 


228 


THE   AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


(li 


11 

1 

:    ■    )    : 

m 

if 

1 

•    ■    t     ' 

England  and  Middle  States.  At  this  early  period, 
their  numbers  had  become  so  greatly  reduced  by  cap- 
ture and  dispersion  that  the  business  of  the  trapper, 
within  thepe  areas,  ceased  to  be  remunerative.  In  the 
regions  around  Hudson's  Bay  and  Lake  Superior; 
upon  the  head  waters  of  the  Missouri  and  h^iskatch- 
ewuu,  and  upon  the  Columbia  and  its  tributaries,  it 
has  continued  through  all  the  intermediate  period 
to  be,  and  still  is,  a  profitable  vocation.  After  the 
substitution  of  silk  for  fur  in  the  manufacture  of 
hats,  the  value  of  beaver  peltry  greatly  declined; 
thus  affording  a  respite  to  this  persecuted  animal, 
under  the  effects  of  which  he  is  now  increasing  in 
numbers  in  certain  localities.  This  is  particularly 
the  case  on  the  Upper  Missouri  and  in  the  great 
forests  around  Lake  Superior:  but  it  is  not  at  all 
probable  that  they  will  ever  recover,  in  any  locality, 
their  former  numbers.  In  1862,  beaver  pelts  were 
worth,  at  Fort  Benton,  on  the  Upper  Missouri,  one 
dollar  and  a  quarter  per  pound  against  seven  and 
eight  dollars  per  pound  fifty  years  ago.  They  are 
now  worth  two  dollars  per  pound  on  the  south  shore 
of  Lake  Superior.  An  ordinary  pelt  weighs  from 
IJ  to  li  pounds. 

The  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  chartered  May  2d, 
1682,  and  the  American  Fur  Company,  organized  in 
the  early  part  of  the  present  century,  have  been  the 
principal  organizations  engaged  in  the  fur  trade  in 
North  America.  Instead  of  ravaging  their  districts, 
as  the  colonists  did,  they  early  adopted  a  protective 
system,  not  only  with  reference  to  the  beavers,  but 
also  to  other  fur-bearing  animals,  that  their  numbers 
might  not  become  exhausted.     Among  other  regula- 


MODE  OF  TRArriNG   BEAVER. 


229 


it 
0(1 

be 
of 
ed; 
aal, 
5  in 
arly 
;reat 
t  all 
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were 

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are 
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umbers 
regular 


tions  of  the  Hudson's  Buy  Company,  an  interval  of 
five  year8  is  allowed  to  elapse,  after  a  sejison's  hunt  in 
a  particular  beaver  dintrict,  before  it  is  again  n>8umcd. 
While  these  companies  have  prosecuted  their  operur 
tions  u|)on  a  vast  scale,  they  have  by  no  means  en- 
joyed a  monopoly  of  the  business.  Private  adven- 
turers in  large  numbers  have  engaged  in  trapping,  and 
followed  it  year  after  year  as  a  regular  pursuit.  Our 
Indian  nations,  also,  whose  territories  produce  fur- 
bearing  animals,  trap  more  or  less  for  the  means  of 
subsistence.  Within  our  national  limits  there  are 
hundreds,  and  even  thousands  of  men,  who  now  make 
trapping  their  exclusive  business. 

As  success  in  trapping  depends  very  much,  as 
before  remarked,  upon  the  knowK'dge  the  trapper  has 
of  the  habits  and  mode  of  life  of  the  several  animals 
he  seeks  to  capture,  an  examination  of  the  methods 
resorted  to  in  trapping  beavers  will  develop  some  of 
the  habits  of  this  animal  not  before  introduced.  It 
is  for  this  reason  exclusively  that  the  subject  will  be 
considered. 

Fio.  28. 


Newhouse's  Trap. 

The  steel  trap  came  into  use  when  the  systematic 
pursuit  of  the  fur-bearing  animals  commenced.  Its 
form  is  well  known.     The  most  perfect  instrument. 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-S) 


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23  WIST  MAIN  STRUT 

WIBSTIR,N.Y.  MStO 

(716)  172-4503 


^^   ^\  '^oN 

4S> 


230 


THE  AMEBICAN   BEAVEB. 


i! 


however,  is  of  recent  introduction,  and  is  known  849 
the  "Newhouse  Trap,"  of  which  the  foregoing  cut  is 
a  representation. 

The  jaws  are  smooth,  and  spread  six  inches  and  a 
half,  of  the  size  best  adapted  for  taking  beavers.  Its 
chief  merits,  as  an  improvement  upon  the  old  form, 
are  said  to  consist  in  such  an  adjustment  of  the  form 
of  the  jaws,  and  of  the  bow  of  the  spring  to  each 
other,  and  the  further  adaptation  of  the  power  of  the 
spring  to  both,  as  to  secure  in  the  highest  degree  the 
two  qualities  of  a  good  catcher  and  a  sure  holder. 
These  traps  are  used  without  bait,  and  operate  on  the 
principle  of  an  inadvertent  tread  upon  the  pan. 

The  trapping  season  commences  about  the  first  of 
November  and  ends  about  the  first  of  April,  during 
which  period  the  different  fur-bearing  animals  are  in 
the  best  condition  with  respect  to  their  fur.  But  it 
is  pursued  more  or  less  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  by 
persons  who  are  more  reckless  of  the  waste  of  animal 
life  than  the  regular  trappers.  In  the  spring,  summer, 
and  fall,  the  usual  place  of  setting  traps  for  beavers 
is  upon  the  dam.  The  trapper  avails  himself  of  the 
well-known  habit  of  this  dam  builder  to  repair  at  once 
any  breach  made  in  the  structure,  over  which  his  su- 
pervision is  constant.  He  therefore  makes  one  or  more 
openings  in  the  crest  of  the  dam,  four  or  five  inches 
deep,  and  sets  a  trap  in  the  pond  at  each  one,  about 
a  foot  back  of  the  breach  and  a  few  inches  below  the 
surface  of  the  water.  By  means  of  a  chain  the  trap 
is  then  secured  to  a  stake  driven  into  the  bed  of  the 
pond,  about  four  feet  back  of  the  trap  and  out  in  the 
pond,  where  the  water  is  of  some  depth.  When  a  beaver 
ascertains  that  the  level  of  his  pond  is  subsiding,  which 


I  "! 


!!»■ 


MODE  OF  TRAPPING  BEATER. 


231 


is  shown  by  the  fall  of  the  water  in  the  lodge  entrances, 
he  goes  to  the  dam,  after  night  has  set  in,  and  com- 
mences its  repair.  While  thus  engaged, he  is  in  constant 
danger  of  springing  the  trap  by  stepping  on  its  pan 
inadvertently.  If  taken  by  either  of  the  fore  feet,  he 
is  very  apt  to  break  the  bones  in  turning  around  the 
trap,  thus  freeing  himself;  but  if  caught  by  either  hind 
leg,  his  case  is  hopeless.  He  immediately  plunges  into 
the  deep  water  of  the  pond,  where  his  course  is  soon 
arrested  by  the  stake  and  chain.  It  is  a  part  of  the 
trapper's  merciless  plan  to  drown  the  animal,  for  the 
double  purpose  of  preventing  him  from  breaking  away 
and  of  saving  his  body  under  water,  where  it  will  be 
inaccessible  to  beasts  of  prey.  To  accomplish  this 
end,  two  contrivances  are  resorted  to,  of  which  the 
most  simple  is  an  extra  stake  set  a  short  distance 
beyond  the  first,  around  which  the  beaver  is  quite  cer- 
tain to  coil  the  chain,  and  thus  drown  himself,  in  his 
attempts  to  escape;  and  the  other  is  the  pole-slide.  A 
dry  pole,  ten  or  twelve  feet  long,  with  a  prong  at  one 
end  to  prevent  the  ring  of  the  chain  from  slipping  off, 
is  secured  to  the  bank  or  dam  by  a  hook  driven  down 
into  the  ground  near  the  trap.  The  small  end  of  the 
pole — the  ring  being  run  up  to  the  large  end  near  the 
hook — is  then  immersed  in  the  pond  as  far  out  as  it 
will  reach.  When  a  beaver  is  caught,  he  dives  and 
swims  in  the  direction  to  which  the  pole  leads,  the 
ring  sliding  down  to  the  end.  In  the  deep  water  thus 
reached,  the  weight  of  the  chain  and  trap,  by  which 
his  motions  are  embarrassed,  prevents  his  rising  to 
the  surface,  and  he  is  soon  an  unresisting  victim  of 
the  trapper  8  art. 

Captain  Wilson,  before  referred  to,  on  one  occasion 


232  THE  AMERICAN  BEAVER. 

^«  thp  Grass  Lake 

«,t  three  traps  ».«r  H-X  H->*' ^^^ ''"' 
dam,  »ing  »take.  .n.^^  o    i^^^V^^^  ^^  ^^„„,. 

foUowing  results.    Two  d  y^  j^„y       „^ 

going  to  the  traps,  *«  «"^  ^  „  beaver,  and  both 
|„o  of  the  traps  ^^^^  ^he  calamity  that 
drowned;  bat  "-'"'^f^tvL  had  finished  their 
b,d  befallen  ^T'^^'J  ^ared  from  sight 
work.    The  third  t™P  *"^  j^  b^%be  stake,  which 

He  foand  the  *-"»  f  ^' \tat  the  trap  was  buried 
.bowed,  on  running   t  up,  t  ^^^  ^^j^„,, 

i„  the  breach  r"**/!  drawing  it  out, he  discovered 
used  in  its  repair  Upon  dmwing  ^^^^^^^ 

a  duck  in  the  trap,  wh  ch  t.  ^^^^  ^^^^  ,,^ 

drowned,.^  tat^t:l^-l  tUe  breach  and 
been  carried  by  mo 

there  buried.  ther  of  the  common 

Trapping  at  the  lodge  «  ^^  ^^^.^  ,„ 

,„ethodB.    Two  paraUe^  ™^^  °„     ^^^  ^^^  ^i^tance 
,to„  the  ™»°*",rforming  two  narrow  channels, 

out  into  the  P«»<'' *"'^:rivers  mast  pass  to  enter 
through  one  of  "^ich  *he  be  .„,y,  ,^d 

the  lodge.     A  trap  «  sej^i  ^^^^^  ,„^„„„.    fe 

secured  by  achamandstakei        ^^^  ^^  ^^^^^^  ,^ 

Fig.  IV  «»?"♦'  •'"f"  this  way  are  often  found  sprang 
shown.  Traps  set  ^-^'^Jj^^  to  an  opinion,  mo«, 
and  empty,  which  has  g^v«i  ^  ^^jj  ^  the 

or  less  prevalent  among  A^^'^F  ^y  the 

Indians,  that  they  are  del.be     ^y^^^^^^  ^^^ 
beavers.    There  is  not  orOy  n  .^  ^  ^^^,fe. 

conceit,  buVou  the  «ontraJ^th  ^^^.^^^ 

,bly  dull  animal  wi*  re"  ^         probably  four^ 

the  trap.    A. '""^-^^"'"^.i^g  their  fore  feet  while 
in  their  manner  of  disposing 


MODE  OF  TRAPPING  BEAVER. 


233 


swimming,  which  are  pressed  back  against  the  body, 
so  that  in  passing  over  the  trap  the  abdomen  instead 
of  the  feet  comes  in  contact  with  the  pan,  causing  the 
trap  to  spring.  As  the  trap  cannot  hold  upon  a  broad 
flat  surface,  the  beaver  escapes. 

There  is  another  belief,  universally  adopted  by  both 
Indians  and  trappers,  which  also  admits  of  question, 
namely,  that  when  a  beaver  is  caught  by  either  fore 
leg,  he  bites  it  off  and  thus  frees  himself  from  the 
trap.  Beavers  are  frequently  taken  with  one  and 
sometimes  both  fore  legs  gone,  and  others  with  the 
hind  feet  mutilated  in  various  ways.  Two  of  the 
three  beavers  sent  down  to  me  from  Lake  Superior 
last  winter,  for  the  purpose  of  dissection,  had  lost 
each  a  fore  leg,  one  the  right  and  the  other  the  left, 
apparently  cut  oflf  close  to  the  shoulder,  with  the 
stumps  perfectly  closed  over  with  skin  and  healed. 
The  beaver  represented  in  Plate  I.  is  one  of  them, 
and  has  his  lost  leg  restored  by  borrowing  the  re- 
maining one  of  his  neighbor.  A  beaver  was  taken 
on  the  Upper  Missouri,  in  1860,  with  but  one  perfect 
foot  remaining.  Both  fore  legs  were  wanting,  and 
one  of  the  hind  feet  was  in  part  cut  off.  Captain 
Wilson  caught  a  beaver  on  the  Esconauba  River,  in 
1862,  with  but  one  perfect  foot,  and  that,  one  of  the 
fore  ones,  by  which  he  was  captured.  The  other  fore 
leg  was  gone,  apparently  cut  off  close  to  the  shoulder, 
and  the  stump  healed;  one  hind  foot  was  cut  off 
across  the  middle  of  the  webbed  portion;  and  the 
other  diagonally  across  the  same,  leaving  one  toe  and 
its  claw.  This  beaver  had  evidently  been  caught 
four  times  in  traps,  from  three  of  which  he  had 
escaped.     Trappers  expect  to  lose  most  of  the  beavers 


234 


THE  AMERICAN  BEAYER. 


h 


i     < 


m 


taken  by  the  fore  leg, — that  is,  they  catch  a  foot  in- 
stead of  the  animal, — and  they  endeavor  so  to  set  their 
traps  that  the  hind  feet  will  be  most  likely  to  tread 
upon  their  pans.  The  true  explanation  of  their  ex- 
trication from  traps,  when  caught  by  the  fore  legs,  is 
probably  found  in  the  relative  smallness  of  the  bones 
of  these  legs,  and  in  their  frantic  efforts  to  escape. 
Running  around  the  trap  would  easily  snap  them  oflf, 
after  which  the  rending  of  the  skin  would  be  quickly 
effected.  That  such  is  the  true  explanation,  receives 
confirmation  from  the  fact  that  the  tendons  of  the  leg 
are  usually  found  pulled  out  from  the  shoulder,  and 
still  attached  to  the  foot  in  the  trap;  which  would 
have  been  severed  by  the  teeth  before  the  bones  of 
the  leg,  had  the  beaver  attempted  to  bite  oflf  the 
latter. 

Beavers  caught  in  traps,  and  not  drowned,  some- 
times become  entirely  tame  from  the  effects  of  ex- 
haustion. Mr.  Atchinson,  before  mentioned,  informed 
the  author  that  he  once  found  a  beaver  alive  in  his 
trap,  and  completely  tamed.  He  said,  to  use  his  own 
language,  "that  it  looked  at  him  with  such  an  entreat- 
ing and  submissive  expression,  that  he  could  not  find 
it  in  his  heart  to  kill  him."  He  resolved  to  save  his 
life,  and  take  him  to  the  museum  at  Marquette.  On 
placing  his  hand  upon  the  beaver's  head,  and  passing  it 
along  his  back,  the  latter  showed  no  disposition  to  bite, 
c  "  aversion  to  this  familiarity.  After  taking  him  out 
of  the  trap,  he  held  and  fed  him  in  his  lap;  and  then 
carried  him  on  his  back  for  sixteen  miles,  through 
the  forest,  to  the  railroad  station.  The  journey 
proved  too  rough  for  the  exhausted  beaver,  and  he 
died  the  following  morning.     This  tameuess  was  un- 


I 

I 


MODE  OF   TRAPPING   BEAVER. 


235 


doubtedly  the  result  of  physical  exhaustion,  which 
deprived  the  animal  of  all  power  of  resistance,  as 
well  as  carried  him  beyond  the  sensation  of  fear. 
Rarey's  system  of  taming  horses  is  founded  upon  the 
same  principle.* 

In  the  winter,  which  is  the  season  for  trapping, 
after  the  ponds  are  frozen  over  and  the  beavers  are 
housed  for  the  winter,  other  methods  are  resorted  to, 
among  which  is  the  following :  the  trapper  selects  a 
place  in  the  vicinity  of  a  lodge,  cuts  a  hole  through 
the  ice,  and  puts  down  into  the  pond  a  fresh-cut  pole 
of  birch  or  poplar  about  ten  feet  long.  While  the 
small  end  is  pushed  out  into  the  water,  the  large  end 
is  securely  fastened  in  the  edge  of  the  bank,  and  a 
trap  is  set  immediately  under  the  place  where  it  is 
secured.     This  fresh  cutting  the  trapper  knows  will 


*  That  great  fear  will  produce  nearly  the  same  results  is  shown 
by  the  peaceful  gathering  together  of  different  species  of  wild  ani- 
mals in  South  America,  when  the  annual  rains  deluge  the  pampas. 
Upon  this  subject  Lieut.  Gibbon  remarks :  "  The  Indian  builds 
his  hut  on  those  elevated  places  which  remain  islands.  When 
the  great  floods  of  water  come  down,  crickets,  lizards,  and  snakes 
crawl  into  his  thatched  roof;  and  droves  of  wild  cattle  surround 
his  habitation.  Armadillos  rub  their  armor  against  the  pottery 
in  the  corner  of  his  hut,  while  the  tiger  and  the  stag  stand 
tamely  by.  The  alligator  comes  socially  up,  when  the  'gran 
bestia'  seats  himself  on  the  steps  of  the  door.  The  animal  fam- 
ily congregate  thus  strangely  together  under  the  influence  of  the 
annual  deluge.  Those  of  dry  land  meet  where  the  amphibious 
are  forced  to  go;  and  as  the  rains  pour  down,  they  patiently 
wait.  Birds  fly  in  and  light  upon  the  trees  and  top  of  the  hut, 
while  fish  rise  out  of  the  rivers  and  explore  the  prairie  lands. 
The  animals  begin  to  seek  a  place  of  refuge  in  the  month  of  Jan- 
uary, when  the  soil  becomes  gradually  covered." — Exploration 
of  the  Valley  of  the  Amazon,  Part  II.  p.  253. 


236 


THE  AMERICAN  BEAVER. 


[:i 


I  'ill 


soon  be  discovered,  and  seized  with  avidity  for  trans- 
portation to  the  lodge.  When  a  beaver  has  thus 
found  it,  and  ascertained  that  it  is  fast  at  one  end,  he 
follows  it  up  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  it  oflf — very 
naturally  desiring  to  secure  the  whole  of  the  stick. 
This  brings  him  immediately  over  the  trap;  and  if  the 
trap  is  judiciously  placed,  it  will  be  next  to  a  miracle 
if  the  unsuspecting  victim  does  not  step  upon  its  pan 
before  the  stick  is  severed.  This  has  always  been 
found  one  of  the  most  successful  methods  of  trapping. 
After  a  trap  has  been  set  in  this  way,  the  trapper 
throws  snow  into  the  hole  cut  through  the  ice,  to 
hasten  the  freezing  over  of  the  opening,  and  leaves 
the  place  to  quiet  until  his  next  round  among  his 
traps  brings  him  again  to  the  spot. 

Another  method,  of  Indian  invention,  and  which, 
for  its  deliberate  wickedness,  surpasses  all  others,  if 
the  business  itself  admits  of  gradations  in  cruelty,  con- 
sists in  staking  around  the  pile  of  winter  wood  of  a 
beaver  family,  for  the  purpose  of  forcing  the  whole  of 
them,  one  after  the  other,  by  hunger,  into  the  death- 
pen  thus  contrived  for  their  ensnarement.  By  sound- 
ing on  the  ice,  they  are  able  to  discover  where  these 
piles  are  deposited;  after  which  stake-holes  are  cut 
through  the  ice,  and  dry  stakes  are  driven  in  so  as  to 
form  a  palisade  entirely  around  their  stock  of  winter 
provisions.  On  the  line  of  their  run-way  from  the 
lodge  to  this  pile  one  of  the  stakes  is  pulled  out,  and 
a  light,  dry  twig  is  put  down  loose  in  its  place.  When 
these  arrangements  are  completed,  the  trapper  rolls 
himself  up  in  his  blanket  and  lies  down  upon  the  ice 
to  watch  for  a  movement  of  the  twig,  which  must  oc- 
cur whenever  a  beaver  enters  the  inclosure.     If  he  is 


?:  .^f 


MODE  OP  TRAPPING   BEAVER. 


237 


fortunate  in  point  of  time,  thnt  i^i,  if  there  Ih  a  present 
want  of  a  cutting  at  the  lodge,  he  haH  but  a  nhort  time 
to  wait.  A  beaver  goes  out  from  the  lodge  to  bring 
back  a  cutting  from  the  pile,  and,  finding  a  barrier 
around  the  magazine,  he  seeks  and  finds  the  only 
opening  left,  through  which  he  passes  into  the  inclos- 
ure.  As  he  enters,  the  light  twig  is  moved,  disclos- 
ing to  the  trapper  above  his  presence  within  the  pen; 
whereupon  the  latter  restores  the  stake  to  its  place, 
and  the  fate  of  the  luckless  beaver  is  sealed.  When 
he  finds  his  return  to  the  lodge  cut  off,  he  swims 
around  the  circuit  of  the  stakes  until  he  comes  back 
to  the  place  where  he  entered,  and  there  resigns  him- 
self to  death.  After  he  is  drowned,  the  trapper  takes 
him  out  of  the  pond,  removes  the  stake,  restores  the 
twig,  and  again  lies  down  to  wait  the  coming  of  the 
second  beaver.  The  same  necessity  which  sent  out 
the  first  soon  sends  out  another  upon  the  same  errand, 
to  experience  the  same  fate.  One  after  the  other  the 
remainder  of  the  family,  under  the  pressure  of  the 
same  hunger,  and  perhaps  to  discover  the  cause  of  the 
absence  of  those  who  went  before  them,  go  forth  from 
the  lodge  and  enter  the  fatal  prison-house  of  the  trap- 
per. It  is  said  that  if  he  takes  the  first  beaver  by 
this  device,  it  is  almost  certain  that  he  will  capture 
the  entire  family.  The  drawback  to  this  manner  of 
entrapping  is  the  danger  of  alarming  their  fears  by  the 
presence  of  the  palisade  around  their  pile  of  cuttings, 
at  which,  if  the  first  beaver  turns  back,  the  rest  will 
keep  at  a  distance.  It  is  further  stated  that  they  in- 
variably drown  at  the  stake  where  they  entered. 

In  trapping  bank  beaver,  they  use  various  kinds  of 
scents  to  attract  them  to  the  place  where  the  trap  is 


I 


ll 


II I  :<i 


238 


.\ 


THE  AMERICAN  BEAVER. 


Bet,  which  is  usually  near  the  bank,  and  a  few  inches 
below  the  surface  of  the  water.  Gum  camphor  is  one, 
a  piece  of  which  is  inserted  in  the  split  fork  of  a  stick, 
and  the  latter  is  then  set  in  the  bank  so  as  to  bring 
the  camphor  immediately  over  the  trap,  but  above  the 
water.  A  beaver,  when  he  scents  the  pungent  odor  of 
the  camphor,  follows  it  up  until  he  discovers  the  sub- 
stance; whereupon  he  rises  up  to  reach  it,  in  doing 
which  he  is  liable  to  step  on  the  pan  of  the  trap  with 
his  hind  foot,  and  thus  pay  for  his  curiosity  with  his 
life.  Trappers  also  use  castoreum,  cinnamon,  cloves, 
and  oil  of  juniper  for  the  same  purpose.  Cloves  and 
cinnamon  are  dissolved  in  alcohol  and  made  into  a 
kind  of  paste,  which,  when  smeared  over  a  stick  ad- 
justed in  the  same  manner,  is  found  to  answer  equally 
well  as  a  bait.  Traps  are  also  set,  at  a  venture,  upon 
their  run-ways,  particularly  on  their  solid-bank  dams, 
which  always,  by  some  depression,  show  where  they 
pass  in  going  up  and  down  stream.  When  set  in 
such  places,  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  slight  excava- 
tion for  the  reception  of  the  trap,  and  to  cover  it  with 
leaves.  They  are  also  set  in  the  water  at  points 
where  the  land  juts  out  into  the  pond,  along  which 
beavers  are  apt  to  pass  in  going  up  or  down  the  pond. 
Whenever  the  trapper  discovers  a  trail,  or  well- 
marked  line  on  which  beavers  travel,  either  on  land 
or  in  the  water,  he  avails  himself  of  the  knowledge  to 
conceal  a  trap  under  their  footsteps.  , 

Another  method  of  catching  beavers  where  they  are 
very  numerous,  is  to  drive  them  from  their  lodges  to 
their  burrows,  and  having  closed  the  entrances,  to 
open  the  burrows  and  pull  them  out  with  hooks  or 
by  hand.     This  mode  of  hunting  them  was  formerly 


MODE  or  TRAPPING  BEAVER. 


239 


practiced  extensively  in  the  IIudHun's  Bay  territory. 
The  Indiana  oHcertained  the  situation  uf  their  burruws 
by  sounding  the  ice'ulung  the  margins  uf  the  ponds 
with  ice  chisels,  the  sound  of  the  stroke  revealing  in 
Boinc  way  the  presence  of  a  chamber  in  the  bank.  After 
the  burrows  were  ibund,  an  opening  was  made  in  the 
ice  over  the  mouth  of  each  entrance,  for  the  double  pur- 
pose of  discerning  by  the  movement  of  the  water  when 
a  beaver  had  entered,  and  of  closing  it  up  behind  him. 
The  next  step  was  to  stake  across  the  stream,  where  it 
entered  the  pond,  to  prevent  their  escape  out  of  the 
pond.  After  these  preparations  were  completed,  and 
a  person  was  stationed  on  the  ice  near  each  entrance, 
the  lodges  were  broken  open  to  drive  out  their  in- 
mates and  force  them  to  take  refuge  in  their  burrows. 
As  soon  as  the  motion  of  the  water  showed  that  one 
or  more  of  them  had  entered  a  burrow,  its  mouth  was 
closed,  and  every  one  thus  entrapped  was  sure  to  be 
taken.  After  they  were  thus  locked  up,  the  next 
movement  was  to  open  their  burrows  from  above, 
whereupon,  without  resistance,  they  were  captured 
and  dispatched.  Hearne,  from  whose  work  the  above 
account  is  taken,  remarks:  ''When  their  houses  are 
broken  open,  and  all  their  places  of  retreat  are  dis- 
covered, they  have  but  one  choice  left,  as  it  may  be 
called,  either  to  be  taken  in  their  houses  or  their 
vaults;  in  general  they  prefer  the  latter;  for  where 
there  is  one  beaver  caught  in  the  house,  many  thou- 
sands are  taken  in  their  vaults."* 

When  beavers  are  shot  in  the  pond,  they  sink  to  the 
bottom  and  are  thus  lost,  for  which  reason  the  gun  is 


^  Hearoe's  Journey,  etc.,  p.  235. 


240 


TOE   AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


:! 


rarely  used  in  the  beaver  liunt.  West  of  the  Rocky 
MountaiiiH,  however,  where  the  pondn  are  shallow  and 
small,  and  the  danger  of  losing  the  animal  after  being 
caught,  in  a  trap  is  greater,  the  gun  is  often  used. 
Robert  Meldrum,  for  mnny  years  a  trapper  in  this 
mountain  region,  and  now  one  of  the  factors  of  the 
American  Fur  Company,  informed  me  that  when  he 
hunted  beaver  west  of  the  mountains  he  preferred  the 
gun  for  the  reasons  stated.  He  mentioned  that  on  one 
occasion  he  found  three  lodges  on  a  pond  upon  one  of 
the  tributaries  of  the  Columbia,  where  he  "shot 
twenty-one  beavers  and  left  three."  His  estimate  of 
the  total  number  was  upon  the  assumption  of  eight  to 
a  lodge,  the  well-known  rule  among  Rocky  i.Iountain 
trappers.  It  is  amusing  to  find  how  systematic  this 
class  of  men  become  in  their  calculations. 

Trappers-  often  associate  for  the  purpose  of  extend- 
ing their  operations  over  a  larger  area,  in  which  case 
they  establish  and  provision  camps,  and  assign  the 
several  branches  of  the  work  to  di£ferent  persons. 
When  two  or  more  are  engaged  In  the  same  vicinity, 
and  not  associated,  they  adopt  certain  independent 
lines  or  routes,  so  that  neither  may  interfere  with  the 
other.  It  is  a  custom  among  the  trappers  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  to  recognize  in  each  other  proprie- 
tary rights  in  certain  beaver  districts.  When  a  trap- 
per finds  a  new  stream  well  stocked  with  fur-bearing 
animals,  it  takes  his  name,  and  is  regarded  as  his  ex- 
clusive range  so  long  ns  he  chooses  to  occupy  it. 
Among  such  of  the  Ojibwa  Indians  on  Lake  Superior 
as  engage  in  trapping,  there  is  a  similar  custom. 
They  divide  the  principal  districts  among  themselves, 
after  which  each  leaves  to  the  others  the  undisturbed 


MODE  OP  TRAPPING  UK  AVER. 


241 


is 
[le 
lie 
he 
>ne 
5  of 
hot 
e  of 

litO 

tain 
this 

tend- 

case 
the 

sons, 
linity, 
indent 
Ith  the 

•f  the 
[roprie- 
|a  trap- 
aring 

his  ex- 

|upy  i^' 
luperior 

custom. 

selves, 

isturbed 


enjoyment  of  their  respective  bentH.  Ertch  trnp|)or,  or 
family,  or  association,  therefore,  hnn  a  special  round, 
upon  which  they  make  repeated  exjwditionH  during 
the  season  of  the  hunt.  On  the  first  journey,  they 
carry  in  and  distribute  their  traps,  select  and  provision 
their  camps,  and  prepare  generally  for  an  arduous 
winter's  work.  A  single  trapper  can  mannj^e  from 
fifty  to  seventy  traps  upon  a  line  thirty  or  forty  miles 
in  circuit.  At  regular  intervals,  the  traps,  after  Injing 
set,  are  visited,  the  captured  animals  removed,  and  the 
traps  reset.  This  round  of  the  traps,  with  the  curing 
of  the  skins,  fills  out  their  time,  and  furnishes  sys- 
tematic employment  for  the  season. 

The  life  of  the  trapper,  although  one  of  hardship 
and  privation,  is  full  of  adventure.  They  lead,  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  a  life  of  solitude  in  the  track- 
less forests,  encountering  dangers  of  every  kind,  en- 
during fatigue  and  hunger,  and  experiencing,  in  return, 
the  pleasures,  such  as  they  are,  afforded  by  the  hunt. 
As  a  class  they  are  generous,  reckless,  and  intelligent, 
and  very  companionable.  From  their  relations  to 
each  other  of  their  adventures,  and  of  their  observa- 
tions upon  the  habits  of  animals,  a  kind  of  ''animal 
lore"  has  been  developed  and  propagated  of  very 
ample  fullness  and  range,  which,  in  course  of  time, 
may  be  considered  worthy  of  perpetuation  in  written 
form.  Their  conclusions  are  not  always  veritable,  as 
they  are  prone  to  be  over-credulous;  neither  are  their 
speculations  always  sound;  but  in  both  they  display 
much  acuteness  and  ingenuity.  The  regular  trappers 
are  an  original  and  peculiar  class  of  men,  whose  tend- 
encies of  mind  have  led  them  away  from  human 
society,  into  a  life  substantially  with  the  wild  animals, 

16 


242 


THE  AMERICAN   BEAYEB. 


S^-N 


and  with  Nature  in  her  most  rugged  forms.  Many  of 
them,  by  natural  endowments,  were  deserving  of  a 
higher  destiny. 

It  is  one  of  their  customs,  and  one  which  served 
me  a  useful  purpose,  to  hang  up  the  skulls  of  captured 
animals  upon  bushes  and  limbs  of  trees  on  the  lines 
of  their  routes.  This  practice  is  alluded  to  by  Samuel 
P.  Ely,  Esq  ,  in  the  following  letter,  which  I  take  the 
liberty  to  insert  for  its  humorous  reference  to  this 
custom.  Having  written  to  him  for  some  beaver 
skulls  to  complete  my  collection,  his  answer  came 
under  date  of  February  26, 1866,  as  follows:  "I  ca*^ 
obtain  the  skulls,  and  have  arra':ged  with  two  diflfer- 
ent  trappers  for  thirty  each.  If  they  both  fulfill  their 
engagements,  your  craniology  of  the  beaver  will  be 
unimpeachable.  Accompanying  them  will  be  an  oc- 
casional mink,  otter,  and  lynx  skull,  which  may  be 
useful  for  purposes  of  comparison.  It  is  fortunately 
quite  easy  to  procure  these  skulls.  It  appears  that  a 
custom  is  quite  prevalent  among  trappers  to  hang  up, 
among  the  bushes  on  their  line,  the  skulls  of  the 
animals  whose  fur  and  flesh  they  have  appropriated; 
and  it  is  nothing  more  than  the  collection  of  them  on 
one  of  their  tours  to  get  thirty  or  forty  specimens. 
Since  nothing  of  this  kind  is  done  without  motive,  I 
present  you  gratuitously  my  theory  on  that  point. 
1st.  It  is  subjectively  encouraging  to  the  trapper, 
when  the  hunt  fails  him  for  a  time,  and  his  traps  are 
empty,  to  look  upon  the  memorials  of  his  past  success. 

"  2d.  It  is  objectively  calculated  to  produce  on  the 
living  animals,  which  also  view  these  relics,  a  feeling 
of  resignation  to  the  fate,  which,  once  deemed  finally 
inevitable,  they  are  the  less  careful  to  avoid. 


MODE  OF  TRAPPING   BEAVER. 


243 


a 

ed 

ed 

les 

uel 

the 

this 

iver 

ame 

iffer- 
their 
lU  be 
itioc- 
ay  be 
lately 
that  a 

ngup, 

of  the 

riated; 

lem  on 

jinaens. 

otive,  1 
point, 
rapper, 
caps  9se 
success, 
on  the 
a  feeling 
d  finally 


*'It  is  interesting,  however,  that  so  remarkable  a 
custom  should  furnish  immediately  such  a  mass  of 
materials  for  scientific  investigation.  Think  of  sixty 
skulls  ofF-hand  ?  They  are  promised  to  me  without 
fail.  Do  not,  however,  count  them  already  sure, 
because  these  sons  of  the  forest,  as  a  general  thing, 
fail  to  apprehend  the  relation  between  a  promise  and 
its  fulfillment,  which  the  more  civilized  man  finds  it 
convenient  to  observe.'" 

The  number  of  beavers  taken  during  a  season's 
hunt  varies,  of  course,  with  the  skill  of  the  trapper 
and  the  supply  within  his  district.  On  the  south 
shore  of  Lake  Superior,  an  Indian  family  of  four 
effective  persons  will  capture  from  seventy-five  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty,  if  their  hunting  grounds  are  well 
stocked.  Fifty  and  a  hundred  are  not  an  uncommon 
number.'  But  the  business  must  be  assiduously  fol- 
lowed to  secure  any  degree  of  success. 
.  The  statistics  of  the  fur  trade  sufficiently  prove  that 
beavers  existed  in  immense  numbers  in  different  parts 
of  North  America  at  the  several  epochs  of  their  set- 
tlement. A  brief  reference  to  some  of  the  figures 
will  make  this  apparent.     In  1624,  the  Dutch  West 

*  It  is  proper  to  add  that  the  promise  was  amply  redeemed  by 
the  production,  in  due  time,  of  forty  skulls. 

*  John  Hutchins,  a  famous  trapper,  now  residing  in  Maulius, 
New  York,  estiaates  the  number  of  animals  bo  Las  caught  in 
traps,  or  taken  in  other  ways  in  the  course  of  his  life,  as  follows  : 
"one  hundred  moose;  one  thousand  deer ;  ten  caribou  ;  one  hun- 
dred bears ;  fifty  wolves ;  five  hundred  foxes ;  one  hundred  rac- 
coons; twenty-five  wild-cats;  one  hundred  lynx;  one  hundred 
and  fifty  otters;  six  hundred  beavers  ;  four  hundred  fishers;  mink 
and  marten  by  the  thousands,  musk-rats  by  the  ten  thousands." — 
Newhouse's  Trapper^s  Guide,  p.  64. 


244  THE  AMERICAN   BEAVER. 

.  A  frnm  New  Amsterdam  four 
India  Company  -?»'«*/^^,f;lg„rated  this  trade 

hundred  ^-'''l^^Z'^l^TZ>eX^  i°"«»«'^  "^ 
^itl,  the  New  World.  Jh"^  j^d  and  eighty- 
1635  to  fourteen  thousand  »"       ;„„,       „  the 

one.    During  the  "^^^^^Cnsand'one  hun- 
.hole  nnmber  exported  w^«gh^^^  was  then  worth 

dred  and  eighty-three.  >-  ^^^  ^^^  steadily 

about  two  dollars  and  »J°«'«^j   ^^  o^t^h  ended,  in 

increased  until  *«/"—,«  a\easure  of  value, 
1664.    Beavet  pelts  were  then  ^^_^  ^^^^^ 

and  formed  a  part  of  ""T"^^ '     bol  in  the  seal 
himself  was  adopted  ^^*-^:^,  ^,^,  English 
of  the  P«>^'"««\.^r  .."J'  of  export  from  New  York 
™le,  to  be  the  *f„"jf  ^^fch^he  exportation  de- 
unta  the  year  1700,  ^^^'^^^^  ,^ti„et.    In  1687, 
elined  rapidly,  and  ^o""  Jf  ^"^^^         ;„„«  of  New 
Thomas  Dongan,  g»-«™» /j^  as  follows:  "We 
York,  remarks  m  '«' °     'lae  U  very  much  dimin-. 
find  this  year  that  the  --n-e  'sj^  ^^  ^^^ 

ished,  for  in  other  years  we  wej  »  ^^^^ 

England  thirty-five  or  forty  thous  ^^^  ^^^ 

peltry;  this  y^\'^^l„riX^n  November,  1700, 
dreds,  peltry  and  » 1-  *=     ^1,^  jorfs  of  trade  in 

Governor  Bellomont  "-"^  ^  t  ^^^^^  ^^^^  ^_^^,j^ 

equally  -!««<>"••»«'"«.  ^^fkto  U'"^  "  °°"'"^'  *"* 
here  and  at  Boston  "/""^J^  "  „  E„gtod  that  'tis 

the  market  is  so  low  "'"j^have  been  told  that 
scarce  worth  t^e  trans^v^ce  «as  in  possession  of 
in  one  year,  when  «''.P'°.^  thousand  beaver  skins 

.  Colonial  Hist  >iew  York,  m.  4Tb. 


MODE  OF   TRAPPING   BEAVER. 


245 


Kay. 


but  fifteen  thousand  two  hundred  and  forty-one  ex- 
ported hence.'"  During  the  same  periods,  large  num- 
bers of  beaver  skins  were  exported  from  Delaware, 
Maryland,  Pennsylvai,  ia,  and  Virginia,  and  from  New 
England.  In  the  ear  y  part  of  the  last  century  the 
trade  ceased  within  these  portions  of  the  United  States. 

Shortly  before  the  3'ear  1800,  American  enterprise 
was  directed  to  the  fur  trade  on  the  Northwest  Coast, 
and  the  several  organizations  which  sprang  up  were 
finally  merged  in  the  American  Fur  Company,  whose 
field  of  operations  was  upon  the  head  waters  of  the 
Columbia,  the  Yellowstone,  and  the  Missouri,  and  the 
shores  of  Lake  Superior.  This  company  is  still  en- 
gaged in  the  general  business,  but  the  amount  of 
beaver  skins  now  obtained  is  comparatively  small. 
Formerly  it  was  large,  but  the  statistics  of  their  trade 
are  not  within  my  reach. 

The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  has  been  the  most  im- 
portant and  efficient  organization  in  North  America 
for  the  capture  of  the  fur-bearing  animals.  Possess- 
ing exclusive  jurisdiction  over  an  immense  area,  of 
little  value  for  settlement,  but  of  great  value  for  the 
production  of  fur,  they  have  enjoyed  a  monopoly  of 
this  trade  for  nearly  two  centuries.  Their  exporta- 
tion of  beaver  skins  alone  has  often  exceeded  a  hun- 
dred thousand  per  annum.  In  174.3,  one  hundred 
and  fifty  thousand  were  received  at  Rochelle  and 
London,  the  greater  portion  of  which  was  from  the 
Hudson's  Bay  territory  and  the  Canadas.  From  the 
recent  catalogues  of  the  sales  of  this  company,  it  ap- 
pears that  they  sold  at  their  houses  in  Edinburgh  and 

'  Colonial  Hist.  New  York,  iv.  789. 


246 


THE  AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


London,  in  January  and  August,  1854,  five  hundred 
and  nine  thousand  two  hundred  and  forty  beaver 
skins;  in  January  and  August,  1855,  sixty-two  thou- 
sand three  hundred  and  fifty-two;  and  in  January, 
1856,  fifty-six  thousand  and  thirty- three  ;^  making  in 
the  aggregate  the  enormous  number  of  six  hundred 
and  twenty-seven  thousand  six  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  beaver  skins  in  the  course  of  two  and  a  half  years. 
It  is  to  be  inferred  that  the  large  number  sold  in  1854 
was  the  accumulation  of  a  few  previous  years,  and 
that  the  numbers  sold  in  1855  and  in  the  first  half  of 
1856  show  the  average  annual  production  at  this 
late  period. 

The  foregoing  statistics  are  sufficient  to  indicate  the 
numerical  extent  to  which  the  species  had  become  de- 
veloped and  increased  in  North  America,  as  well  as 
to  mark  the  areas  in  which  they  were  the  most  abund- 
ant. A  statement  before  made  may  be  here  repeated, 
that  the  beaver,  with  his  life,  has  contributed  in  no 
small  degree  to  the  colonization  and  settlement  of  the 
British  Provinces  and  the  United  States. 

Having  in  the  preceding  pages  discussed  the  princi- 
pal questions  with  reference  to  the  beaver  and  his 
works,  it  is  proposed,  in  a  final  chapter,  to  consider 
some  of  those  relating  to  Animal  Psychology.  Al- 
though a  digression  from  the  main  subject  to  one 
entirely  independent,  the  two  are  strictly  correlated. 
It  must  be  the  ultimate  result  of  investigations  con- 
cerning the  habits  and  lives  of  animals  to  raise  Ani- 
mal Psychology  to  the  rank  of  a  science,  by  affording 

*  Schoolcraft's  Hist,  Cond.,  and  Pros.,  of  the  Indian  Tribes, 
vi.  728. 


MODE  OF  TRAPPING  BEAVER. 


247 


n 
A 

y- 

rs. 

54 

nd 

:of 

his 

the 
I  de- 
ll as 
und- 
ated, 


the  necessary  materials  for  solving  questions  relative 
to  the  mental  qualities  of  the  mutes. 

Nora. — In  closing  these  pages  upon  the  works  of  the  beaver, 
I  desire  to  make  special  mention  of  my  friend,  William  Can)cron, 
of  Marquette,  to  whom  I  am  indebted  for  my  first  acquaintance 
with  the  beaver  lore  of  the  trappers.  Although  I  have  not  ven- 
tured to  use  it,  except  with  caution,  I  have  found  it  useful  in  the 
progress  of  this  investigation.  A  quarter-blood  Ojibwa,  and  the 
son  of  one  of  the  factors  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  Cam- 
eron  married  an  Ojibwa  woman,  adopted  the  customs  of  her 
nation,  and  is  now  drawing  near  the  end  of  a  long  life  spent  on 
the  shores  of  Lake  Superior.  As  a  voyageur,  he  has  traversed 
the  continent  to  the  Pacific  coast ;  as  a  trapper,  be  has  explored 
the  great  forests  around  Lake  Superior,  as  well  as  portions  of  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Territory ;  and  lastly,  as  a  soldier  in  the  army  of 
the  United  States,  he  has  served  bis  country  with  fidelity.  A 
thoroughbred  woodman,  an  honest  and  most  unselfish  man,  he  is 
every  way  a  clever  companion.  I  shall  ever  hold  him  in  pleasant 
remembrance  as  one  of  those  eccentric  and  unspoiled  children  of 
nature  whom  we  occasionally  meet  with  in  the  journey  of  life. 


no 
the 


Tribes, 


CHAPTER  IX. 

ANIMAL  PSYCHOLOGY. 

Inquiries  proposed  —  Whether  the  Mutes  possess  a  Mental  Principle — 
Whether  its  Qualities  are  similar  to  those  manifested  by  the  Human 
Mind — Whether  the  Differences  are  of  Degree,  or  of  Kind — Considerations 
from  Structural  Organization — The  Principle  of  Life — Memory — Reason 
— Imagination — The  Will — Appetites  and  Passions — Lunacy  of  Animals 
— General  Conclusions. 


J:; 


I 


The  popular  mind  has  always  been  in  advance  of 
the  metaphysicians  with  reference  to  the  mental  en- 
dowments of  animals.  For  some  reason  there  has 
been  a  perpetual  hesitation  among  many  of  the  latter 
to  recognize,  in  the  manifestations  of  the  animal 
mind,  the  same  characteristics  that  are  displayed  by 
the  human  intellect:  lest  the  high  position  of  man 
should  be  shaken  or  impaired.  Besides  this,  the  con- 
nection in  man  between  the  intellectual  faculties  and 
the  moral  sense  is  found  to  be  so  intimate,  that  the 
concession  of  the  former  has  seemed,  to  cautious 
minds,  to  draw  after  it  the  necessary  admission  of 
the  latter.  In  attempting  to  escape  this  imaginary 
dilemma,  the  metaphysicians  have  been  betrayed,  as 
it  would  seem,  into  a  false  position.  This  is  shown 
by  the  invention,  in  modern  times,  of  a  vague,  not  to 
say  fictitious,  principle,  with  which  all  animals  have 
been  arbitrarily  endowed  for  the  government  and 
maintenance  of  their  lives.  There  can  be  no  objec- 
tion to  the  use  of  this  principle,  which  is  termed  "in- 

(248) 


ANIMAL  PSTCHOLOGT. 


249 


,  as 
hown 
not  to 
have 
t,  and 
objec- 
led  "in- 


stinct," to  explain,  or  rather  to  leave  unexplained, 
certain  mental  phenomena  exhibited  equally  by  man- 
kind and  the  inferior  animals,  so  long  as  it  in  restricted 
to  those  mental  processes  which  are  beyond  the  reach 
of  consciousness.  But  the  attempt  to  explain  all  the 
mental  phenomena  manifested  by  the  mutes  by  means 
of  an  arbitrary  term  is  an  evasion  of  the  true  ques- 
tion involved.  It  would  be  difficult,  in  right  reason, 
to  discover  the  slightest  tendency  to  lower  the  per- 
sonal dignity  of  man,  or  to  alter  in  the  least  his  re- 
sponsibility to  God,  by  recognizing  the  existence  in 
the  mutes  of  a  thinking  self-conscious  principle,  the 
same  in  kind  that  man  possesses,  but  feebler  in  de- 
gree; nor  even  by  conceding  their  possession  of  a 
moral  sense,  although,  so  far  as  our  present  knowl- 
edge extends,  it  is  so  faintly  developed  as  scarcely  to 
deserve  the  name.  Man,  at  least,  should  neither  ad- 
mit nor  deny  the  moral  sense  to  the  lower  animals 
because  of  the  supposed  bearing  of  such  an  admission 
upon  his  own  relations  to  the  Supreme  Being.  The 
question  of  the  degree  and  kind  of  their  mental  en- 
dowments should  stand  upon  its  own  basis,  and  be  re- 
solved upon  its  own  merits.  I  trust  the  sensibilities 
of  no  one  will  be  disturbed  by  this  method  of  intro- 
ducing the  subject  of  Animal  Psychology;  and  that 
the  subject  may  be  considered  unaffected  by  external 
complications,  and  be  studied  independently  upon  its 
own  authoritative  facts. 

When  the  Creator  brought  into  existence  the  vari- 
ous species  of  animals,  He  intrusted  to  each  individ- 
ual being  the  care  of  his  own  life.  As  a  principle  of 
intelligence  was  indispensable  to  capacitate  each  one 
to  maintain  and  preserve  that  life^  we  find  each  indi- 


250 


THE  AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


vidual  endowed  with  a  mental  or  spiritual  essence 
which  is  distinct  from  the  body,  but  associated  with 
it  in  a  mysterious  manner.  It  requires  no  argument 
to  prove  that  the  mutes  possess  a  principle  of  intelli- 
gence which  performs  for  them  the  same  office  in 
governing  their  conduct  that  the  human  mind  does 
for  man.  When  the  existence  of  mind  in  the  mutes 
is  recognized,  the  qualities  it  manifests  become  the 
subject  of  investigation.  As  we  know  nothing  of  the 
ultimate  nature  of  the  human  mind,  so  in  like  man- 
ner we  know  nothing  of  the  ultimate  nature  of  the 
animal  mind;  but  since  the  former  manifests  certain 
faculties,  as  memory,  certain  passions,  as  anger,  cer- 
tain appetites,  as  hunger,  and  puts  forth  a  certain 
power,  the  will, — the  true  inquiry  is,  whether  the 
latter  manifests  certain  faculties,  as  memory,  certain 
passions,  as  anger,  certain  appetites,  as  hunger,  and 
puts  forth  a  certain  power,  the  will  ?  If  the  affirma- 
tive is  found  to  be  true  as  to  each  of  these  proposi- 
tions, then  the  next  question  must  be,  whether  any 
diflference  in  kind  can  be  discovered  between  the 
memory  of  a  man  and  the  memory  of  a  mute;  be- 
tween the  anger  of  the  one  and  the  anger  of  the 
other;  the  hunger  of  the  one  and  the  hunger  of  the 
other;  or  the  will  of  the  one  and  the  will  of  the  other. 
Unless  some  real  and  determinate  difference  can  be 
found  by  which  to  differentiate  the  qualities  of  the 
animal  mind  from  those  of  the  human  mind,  it  must 
necessarily  follow  that  the  mute  and  the  man  are 
both  endowed  with  a  similar  mental  principle;  and 
that  man  owes  his  superior  dignity  not  to  the  exclu- 
sive possession  of  this  principle,  but  rather  to  its  en- 
joyment in  a  higher,  more  ample,  and  more  distin- 
guishing degree. 


ANIMAL   PSTCHOLOQT. 


251 


It  is  one  of  the  extraordinary  features  of  this  Divine 
gift  that  it  is  capable  of  adaptation  to  so  many,  and 
to  such  diversified  organisms;  and  not  less  remarkable 
that  it  should  still  reveal  the  fundamental  similarities 
of  a  common  principle  through  all  its  ramifications, 
so  far  as  we  are  able  to  observe  its  manifestations. 
Our  knowledge  of  the  lives  of  the  higher  animals  is  ex- 
tremely limited,  and  four  led  upon  observation  alone; 
while  of  the  inferior  species  it  is  next  to  nothing. 
The  discussion  of  the  subject  of  Animal  Psychology 
is,  therefore,  necessarily  limited  to  the  higher  ani- 
mals, and  to  such  facts,  with  reference  to  these,  as  ai'e 
well  authenticated  and  universally  admitted.  Any 
argument  which  passes  beyond  the  range  of  ascer- 
tained facts  is  incapable  of  proving  or  disproving  any 
proposition. 

Neither  is  it  desirable  to  perplex  ourselves  with  the 
question,  whether  or  not  the  mutes  possess  a  con- 
science, or  the  moral  sense.  While  a  negative  decla- 
ration proves  nothing,  an  affirmative  assertion  is 
without  support  in  existing  knowledge.  The  prior 
question,  in  point  of  time,  is  concerning  their  mental 
endowments. 

It  is  equally  unnecessary  to  discuss  the  grounds  of 
the  artificial  distinction  which  is  made  between  the 
ap])etites  and  passions  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  intel- 
lectual powers  on  the  other.  The  concession  of  the 
former  to  the  mutes  in  common  with  mankind,  and 
the  withholding  of  the  latter  as  an  independent  and 
distinguishing  gift,  is  an  assumption  which  tends  to 
mislead  without  advancing  the  true  inquiry.  The 
passion  of  anger  and  the  pain  of  hunger  can  only  be 
predicated  of  a  mental  principle,  of  which  they  are 


252 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


i 


1 1     M.> 


I 


manifestations  as  absolutely  as  memor}'  or  imagina- 
tion. Indeed,  it  is  an  axiom  in  moral  as  well  as  in 
intellectual  science,  that  pain  and  pleasure  are  expe- 
rienced in  the  mind,  and  not  in  the  organs  of  the 
body.  When,  therefore,  we  find  the  phenomena  of 
pleasure  and  pain  displayed  by  individuals  of  every 
species,  and  to  be  essentially  the  same  in  kind 
among  them  all,  it  leads  to  the  same  general  con- 
clusion; namely,  that  all  living  creatures  possess  a 
similar  mental  principle.  This  leaves  the  question  of 
difference  in  degree,  which  was  rendered  necessary 
by  difference  in  species. 

I  propose  to  submit,  in  a  brief  form,  a  series  of  con- 
siderations or  arguments  based  upon  the  structural 
organization,  and  authenticated  acts,  of  the  higher 
animals,  tending  to  show :  first,  that  they  possess  a 
mental  principle;  secondly,  that  the  qualities  which 
it  manifests  are  essentially  the  same  as  those  displayed 
by  the  human  mind;  and  lastly,  that  the  difference 
between  these  (jualities,  and, '  inferentially,  between 
the  principles  they  respectively  represent,  is  one  o^ 
degree  and  not  of  kind.  The  discussion,  to  be  brief, 
must  necessarily  be  general ;  and  it  is  entered  upon 
rather  for  the  purpose  of  oflfering  suggestions  upon 
branches  of  the  subject,  than  of  treating  it  systematic- 
ally as  a  whole.  I  have  neither  the  facts  nor  the 
ability  to  prepare  a  treatise  upon  this  important  but 
difficult  theme. 

I.  Structural  Organization.  It  has  been  demon- 
strated, by  anatomical  comparisons,  that  the  struct- 
ural organization  of  the  vertebrate  animals  conforms 
to  a  general  plan,  the  fundamental  features  of  which 
run  through  ail  the  species,  genera,  orders,  and  classes 


ANIMAL    PSYCHOLOGY. 


253 


of  this  branch  of  the  animal  kinjjrdoni.  The  nevcral 
species  thus  stand  in  fixed  rtdations  to  each  other, 
and  are  all  hound  together  hy  the  common  creative 
thought  which  is  incorporated  in  the  diversified  forms 
of  the  individual  representatives  of  each.  Man.  there- 
fore, is  not  permitted  to  overlook  the  fact  that  he  is  a 
constituent  member  of  this  vertebrate  branch;  and 
although  endowed,  relatively,  with  the  highest  capa- 
cities, and  invested  with  the  highest  organization,  he 
cannot  free  himself  from  the  bond  by  which  its  sev- 
eral members  are  indissolubly  united. 

Among  the  conspicuous  features  of  this  plan  of 
structure  is  the  brain,  which  is  enveloped  in  a  skull, 
and  placed  in  immediate  connection  with  the  organs 
of  sense.  The  nervous  system,  of  which  the  brain  is 
the  centre,  is  universally  regarded  as  the  seat  of  the 
mental  principle.  Since  all  the  vertebrate  animals 
possess  both  the  one  and  the  other,  they  are  all  alike 
raised  to  the  first  condition  necessary  for  the  mani- 
festation of  intelligence.  In  the  next  place,  they  all 
agree  in  the  possession  of  the  organ  of  vision,  located 
in  the  head  in  immediate  connection  with  the  brain ; 
of  the  organs  for  smelling  and  hearing  (with  the  ex- 
ception perhaps  of  some  species),  similarly  placed,  and 
holding  similar  relations  to  the  brain.  Besides  these, 
are  the  senses  of  taste  and  touch.  These  several  senses, 
operating  through  similar  mechanisms,  have  but  one 
office,  that  of  communicating  impressions  of  external 
objects  to  the  brain  for  the  information  of  the  mental 
principle.  By  their  means  a  second  condition  of  in- 
telligence is  secured;  namely,  perception.  Without 
one  or  mare  of  these  senses,  which  are  the  instru- 
ments of  perception,  the  bare  continuance  of  animal 


254 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


\'$ 


I    W ' 


life  would  be  impoHHible;  and  ^et,  without  the  pres- 
ence of  a  mental  principle  to  take  cognizance  of  the 
imprcsHionH  thus  conveyed,  thtir  object  would  neces- 
sarily be  defeated. 

These  intimacies  of  structure  are  particularly  re- 
markable among  the  mammals.  The  office  and  func- 
tions of  the  several  bones  and  muscles  of  the  animal 
frame  are  much  the  same  in  the  different  species.  So 
the  nervous  system,  which  is  centralized  in  the  brain, 
is  distributed  throughout  the  body  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  relative  position  as  well  as  functions  of  its 
several  parts  are  similar,  if  not  precisely  the  same,  in 
all.  The  several  ganglia  are  found  in  the  same  con- 
nection with  the  nerves  of  sensation  and  of  motion, 
and  performing  the  same  offices  in  a  similar  manner. 
Such  minute  differences  as  exist  find  their  explana- 
tion in  the  special  adaptation  of  each  animal  to  his 
sphere  of  life.  In  like  manner,  the  circulating  sys- 
tem is  constructed  upon  the  same  general  plan,  em- 
ploying the  same  organs,  with  slight  variations  of 
form.  The  same  is  equally  true  of  the  organs  of  res- 
piration and  of  the  digestive  apparatus.  One  nomen- 
clature suffices  for  the  minutest  subdivisions  of  the 
mammalian  form.  The  anatomist  traces,  with  facil- 
ity, this  conformity  of  structure  through  all  the 
diversities  which  specific  difference  creates.  Such 
modifications  of  particular  organs  as  occur  are  seen 
to  be  necessary  to  meet  special  exigencies,  such  for  ex- 
ample as  relate  to  subsistence  and  to  motion.  Thus, 
the  organs  of  respiration  admit  of  considerable  diver- 
sity in  size  and  form,  according  to  the  amount  they 
are  required  to  furnish.  Birds  need  a  large  quantity  of 
respiration  to  give  to  their  muscles  the  strength,  and 


ANIMAL   rSYCIIOLCXJY. 


25o 


e»- 
he 
les- 

re- 
inc- 
mal 
So 
'ain, 
oner 
.fits 
ie,in 
I  con- 
Dtion, 
tnner. 
plana- 
to  his 

g  sys- 

n,  em- 
ons  of 
of  res- 
lomen- 
of  the 

facil- 
lall  the 

Such 
,re  seen 
1  for  ex- 

Thus, 
le  diver- 
mt  they 
antity  of 
igth,  and 


n 


to  their  bodies  the  lightness  ncceHHiiry  to  tiight;  whence 
they  have  not  only  a  double  circuhitiun  uf  the  bUH)d, 
and  an  aerial  reHpiration,  but  they  al^o  reHpire  by  other 
cavities  besides  the  lungs.  In  most  animals  the  ({uan- 
tity  of  respiration  is  moderate,  because  they  are  formed 
to  walk  rather  than  to  run;  in  reptiles,  whicii  are 
formed  to  creep  or  hop,  it  is  lower  still;  while  in  fishes 
it  is  least  of  all,  since  they  are  suspended  in  a  medium 
of  nearly  their  own  specific  gravity,  and  require  but 
little  muscular  strength  for  motion.  These  differ- 
ences are  chiefly  produced  by  variations  of  the  same 
organs.  From  the  fact  that  the  vertebrate  animals 
share  a  common  typical  structure,  a  strong  preHumi>- 
tion  arises  that  they  also  share  a  common  principle  of 
intelligence. 

This  presumption  is  materially  strengthened  by 
other  considerations.  The  structure  of  the  higher 
animals  leads  directly  to  the  inference  that  each  of 
their  organic  forms  was  designed  to  be  actuated  and 
governed  by  a  thinking  principle;  a  principle  not 
only  capable  of  receiving  impressions  conveyed  by 
the  organs  of  sense,  but  also  of  making  a  rational 
use  of  the  perceptions  which  these  organs  were 
designed  to  throw  perpetually  under  its  cognizance. 
To  deny  the  existence  of  the  principle,  or  its  power 
to  act,  is  a  denial  of  the  obvious  purpose  of  the  elab- 
orate mechanism  of  the  animal  frame. 

From  every  point  in  which  the  structural  relations 
of  the  vertebrate  animals  are  considered,  a  common 
plan  of  creation  is  not  only  seen,  but  this,  in  turn, 
becomes  deeply  significant  upon  the  question  of  sim- 
ilar mental  endowments.  These  intimacies  of  struct- 
ure are  the  foundation  of  corresponding  intimacies  in 


256 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


! ::' 


the  principle  of  intelligence  by  which  they  are  actu- 
ated. 

II.  The  Principle  of  Life.  Life  in  all  its  forms  is  a 
mystery.  As  a  formative  power,  it  builds  up  the 
infantile  body  from  weakness  into  maturity  and 
strength.  It  maintains  a  perpetual  conflict  with  the 
elements  of  disorder  and  decay  until  the  organism  in 
which  it  dwells  breaks  up,  or  wears  itself  out.  Is 
death  the  destruction  of  this  principle?  or  is  it  imma- 
terial, and  expelled,  like  the  spirit,  from  the  body? 
If  it  be  a  principle,  and,  therefore,  immaterial,  it 
would  be  difficult  to  show  that  the  living  and  think- 
ing principles  are  separate  and  distinct  entities.  It 
seems  to  be  more  than  surmisable  that  the  two  are 
identical.  It  is  I — the  spirit — which  lives,  and  not 
the  body,  which  is  material.  If  life  comes  of  the 
union  of  body  and  spirit,  then  it  is  not  an  entity,  but 
a  result;  and  all  there  is  of  life  is  the  life  of  the  spir- 
itual essence,  or  of  the  principle  of  intelligence. 

Vegetable  life  cannot  be  compared  with  animal,  be- 
cause the  former,  to  omit  other  differences,  is  without 
self-consciousness.  Will  it  be  said  that  the  mutes  are 
without  consciousness?  It  is  answered  that  conscious- 
ness is  an  inseparable  and  essential  quality  of  the 
mental  principle,  When  a  beaver  stands  for  a  mo- 
ment and  looks  upon  his  work,  evidently  to  see  whe- 
ther it  is  right,  and  whether  anything  else  is  needed, 
he  shows  himself  capable  of  holding  his  thoughts  be- 
fore his  beaver  mind ;  in  other  words,  he  is  conscious 
of  his  own  mental  processes. 

The  possession  of  the  principle  of  life  by  the  higher 
animals,  from  its  most  robust  to  its  most  sensitive  forms, 
draws  after  it  whatever  this  principle  may  represent. 


ANIMAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 


267 


uigber 
forms, 
esent. 


III.  Memory.  The  mind  is  known  by  its  qualities 
exclusively. 

As  a  principle,  or  essence,  it  is  not  divisible  into 
parts,  or  faculties,  or  organs,  each  having  an  independ- 
ent existence.  "The  utmost  ingenuity,"  says  Aber- 
crombie,  "has  not  been  able  to  advance  a  step  beyond 
the  fact  that  the  mind  remembers,  reasons,  imagines; 
and  there  we  must  rest  contented." 

It  cannot  f<ir  a  moment  be  doubted  that  the  animal 
mind  remembers,  and  that  it  displays  this  quality  as 
purely  and  as  absolutely  as  the  human  mind.  Meniory, 
then,  must  be  conceded  to  be  one  of  its  qusilities.  Its 
quickness  or  slowness,  its  retentiveness  or  weakness, 
are  wholly  immaterial.  It  is  sufficient  that  the  animal 
mind  is  able  to  recall  a  former  perception,  or  previously 
known  fact,  and  to  have  treasured  it  during  the  inter- 
val. The  inference  that  follows  from  the  recognized 
possession  of  a  principle  capable  of  remembering  is 
very  important.  Memory  is  one  of  the  qualities  by 
which  the  existence  of  the  human  mind  is  demon- 
strated. By  the  same  quality  the  existence  of  a  cor- 
responding principle  in  the  mutes  is  also  established. 
If  a  comparison  of  the  two  acts  of  remembrance  show 
them  to  be  in  all  respects  similar,  then  the  two  prin- 
ciples of  which  they  are  manifestations  are,  inferen- 
tially,  the  same  in  kind.  The  difference  is  indeed  im- 
mense between  the  memory  of  a  familiar  object,  or 
even  of  a  series  of  antecedent  facts,  which  a  mute 
may  exhibit,  and  that  powerful  memory  in  man, 
which  not  only  is  able  to  hold  the  facts  of  universal 
knowledge,  but  also  to  reproduce  the  process  of  reas- 
oning, by  which  the  great  truths  of  science  have  been 
demonstrated.     This  diflference,  however,  is  immate- 

n 


258 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


rial,  since  it  is  one  of  degree,  and  not  of  kind.  As 
there  is  a  gradation  of  its  power  among  the  individ- 
uals of  the  human  species,  so  there  is  undoubtedly  a 
similar  gradation  among  the  several  species  of  the 
vertebrate  animals. 

*' Memory,"  says  Sir  William  Hamilton,  "is  an  im- 
mediate knowledge  of  a  present  thought,  involving  an 
absolute  belief  that  this  thought  represents  another 
act  of  knowledge  that  has  been."  As  the  mind  is  a 
unit,  the  whole  mind  remembers,  and  not  one  of  its 
fractional  parts.  If  the  power  to  remember  were  re- 
moved from  the  mental  principle,  it  would  become 
powerless,  and  perhaps  be  overthrown.  The  past,  in 
such  a  case,  would  be  utterly  lost,  the  present  vanish- 
ing with  every  instant,  the  future  inconceivable,  and 
the  external  world  a  blank.  On  the  other  hand,  let 
any  created  being  possess,  in  addition  to  the  senses,  a 
something  capable  of  remembering,  and  it  has  more 
than  the  power  to  remember;  it  has,  with  it,  a  capa- 
city to  know,  to  understand,  and  to  reason.  That 
something  is  the  mental  principle.  Every  other  infer- 
ence is  excluded.  Knowing  the  qualities  of  this  prin- 
ciple as  it  exists  in  the  human  species,  and  conscious 
of  its  unique  and  extraordinary  character,  when  we 
find  the  mutes  in  possession  of  a  something  which  dis- 
plays the  same  qualities,  the  philosophical  axiom  at 
once  suggests  itself,  namely,  "  that  a  plurality  of  prin- 
ciples is  not  to  be  assumed,  when  the  phenomena  can 
possibly  be  explained  by  one." 

IV.  Reason  or  Judgment.  The  mutes  perceive  ex- 
ternal objects  in  the  same  manner  that  we  do.  After 
admitting  that  no  distinction  can  be  found  between 
their  manner  and  our  own  of  acquiring  a  kno'.vledge 


ANIMAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 


2')9 


d- 
'  a 
he 

im- 
;  an 
:,her 
is  a 
f  its 
e  re- 
come 
at,  in 
inisli- 
},  and 
id,  let 
ises,  a 

more 
I  capa- 
That 
r  infer- 

is  prin- 

nscious 
Ihen  we 

lich  dis- 
jxiom  at 

I  of  prin- 

[ena  can 

jeive  ex- 
After 
between 
io\/ledge 


of  external  things,  through  the  organs  of  sense,  it  has 
been  denied  that  they  are  able  to  make  a  rational  use 
of  the  perceptions  thus  obtained.  Their  acts,  iu  in- 
numerable instances,  are  seen  to  be  acts  of  intelligence 
and  knowledge,  such  as  a  man  would  perform  under 
similar  circumstances,  and  yet,  there  is  an  unwilling- 
ness to  recognize  in  them  the  results  of  deliberate  pro- 
cesses of  reasoning,  followed  by  an  exercise  of  the 
will.  A  large  class,  it  is  true,  acknowledge  some  reas- 
oning powers  in  the  mutes,  but  under  such  qualificti- 
tions,  limitations,  and  restrictions,  that,  in  effect,  it 
denies  to  them  the  possession  of  a  free  intelligence. 
The  real  question  is  practically  evaded.  Their  acts 
should  be  tested  by  the  same  am.  ysis  which  is  applied 
to  human  acts,  and  full  credence  be  given  to  the  re- 
sults. As  we  cannot  place  ourselves  in  personal  con- 
nection with  the  animal  mind  and  thus  obtain  their 
testimony  concerning  their  mental  processes,  we  are 
remitted  to  their  personal  acts.  Upon  these,  however, 
a  judgment  can  be  formed  as  definitely  as  one  man 
can  pronounce  upon  the  act  of  another  man.  While 
this  method  is  not  as  irrefragable  as  an  appeal  to 
consciousness,  it  is  one  upon  which  mankind  act 
implicitly  in  their  own  affairs. 

"  Reason,"  says  Abercrombie,  "consists  in  comparing 
and  weighing  facts,  considerations,  and  motives,  and 
deducing  from  them  conclusions,  both  as  principles  of 
belief  and  rules  of  conduct "  *  *  *  *  "  It  is  the 
exercise  of  mind  by  which  we  compare  facts  with 
each  other,  and  mental  impressions  with  external 
things."  There  are  many  simple  forms  of  reasoning; 
such  as  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect;  the  compari- 
son of  one  fact  with  another,  and  drawing  an  inference 


I' 


III 


260 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


II 


I 


j 


n  i 


therefrom;  and  the  separate  consideration  of  the  sev- 
eral qualities  of  an  object.  It  will  be  sufficient  for 
the  present  purpose  to  take  a  few  of  the  more  simple 
acts  of  animal  intelligence,  and  test  them  by  the  or- 
dinary standards  by  which  human  reasoning  is  meas- 
ured and  determined. 

Anecdotes  of  the  intelligent  conduct  of  animals  are 
innumerable.  They  are  not  only  constantly  appearing, 
and  arresting  attention,  but  a  sufficient  number  of  in- 
stances to  illustrate  the  subject  are  within  the  personal 
knowledge  of  every  individual.  It  will  not  be  neces- 
sary, therefore,  to  seek  a  large  number  of  cases,  or  to 
choose  such  as  are  the  most  remarkable.  Such  only 
will  be  selected  as  tend  to  illustrate  particular  forms 
of  reasoning. 

It  is  said  that  a  dog,  when  attempting  to  track  his 
master  by  the  scent  of  his  footsteps,  will,  if  he  finds 
the  road  branching,  turn  up  one  branch,  and  failing  to 
find  his  scent,  will  then  return  and  go  up  the  other 
without  putting  his  nose  to  the  ground.  It  shows  he 
drew  the  inference  that  because  he  did  not  take  the 
one  branch,  he  must  necessarily  have  taken  the  other. 
The  act  being  conceded,  the  interpretation  given  be- 
comes an  unavoidable  conclusion. 

Again,  a  dog  will  open  a  gate  with  his  paw,  a  self- 
taught  act.  From  the  fact  that  he  applied  the  means 
to  effect  the  end,  the  inference  arises  necessarily  that 
he  understood  the  connection  between  the  means  and 
the  end.  This  is,  pure  and  simple,  a  case  of  reason- 
ing; and,  more  than  that,  a  kind  of  reason  which  can 
only  be  predicated  of  a  thinking  principle.  The  fol- 
lowing artifice  for  catching  fish,  resorted  to  by  the 
tiger  of  the  Amazon,  is  related  by  Hemdon.     It  in- 


K  m 

1 

M  1 

li    n 

!' 

1 

ff' ' 

1 

M 

li   = 

ANIMAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 


261 


V- 

tbr 
pie 
or- 
nv8- 

are 

f  in- 
ional 
leces- 
or  to 
only 
forms 

ck  bis 
e  finds 
ling  to 
;  other 
ows  he 
ke  the 
J  other, 
en  be- 

I,  a  self- 
means 
lily  that 
Jans  and 
reason- 
lich  can 
[The  foV- 
by  the 
It  in- 


volves the  same  form  of  reasoning,  but  covers  a  wider 
range  of  facts.  "An  enormous  tiger,"  he  remarks, 
"was  extended  full  length  upon  a  rock  level  with  the 
water,  about  forty  paces  from  me.  From  time  to  time 
he  struck  the  water  with  his  tail,  and  at  the  same 
moment  raised  one  of  his  fore  paws  and  seized  a  fish, 
often  of  an  enormous  size.  These  last,  deceived  by 
the  noise,  and  taking  it  for  the  fall  of  fresh  fruit  (of 
which  they  are  very  fond),  unsuspectingly  approach, 
and  soon  full  into  the  claws  of  the  traitor."'  This 
self  taught  device,  founded  upon  a  practical  knowl- 
edge of  the  habits  of  fish,  displays  the  operation  of 
unfettered  reason.  If  an  analysis  of  the  act  were 
made  for  the  purpose  of  discovering  the  mental  pro- 
cesses involved,  the  formula  and  the  result  would  be 
precisely  the  same  as  if  it  had  been  a  human  act. 
Reasoning  upon  the  relations  of  causation  must  be  of 
perpetual  recurrence  in  the  lives  of  animals.  It  is 
not  conceivable  that  they  could  maintain  their  exist- 
ence from  day  to  day  without  this  mental  power. 

Dr.  Kane  relates  a  somewhat  similar  artifice  of 
his  dog  Grim  to  escape  duty  in  harness.  "Grim," 
he  says,  "was  an  ancient  dog:  his  teeth  indicated 
many  winters,  and  his  limbs,  once  splendid  tractors 
for  the  sledire,  were  now  covered  with  warts  and 
ringbones.  Somehow  or  other,  when  the  dogs  were 
harnessing  for  a  journey,  'Old  Grim'  was  sure  not 
to  be  found;  and  upon  one  occasion,  when  he  was 
detected  in  hiding  away  in  a  cast  off  barrel,  he  in- 
continently became  lame.  Strange  to  say,  he  has 
been  lame  ever  since  except  when  the  team  is  away 

»  Valley  of  the  Amazon.     Part  I.,  312. 


262 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


if 


without  him.'"  How  came  Grim,  it  may  be  asked, 
to  understand  the  relation  between  sound  legs  and 
the  sledge?  and  beyond  that,  to  feign  lameness  as  an 
excuse  from  duty?  To  reach  this  final  device  re- 
quired a  lengthy  process  of  reasoning,  as  well  as  a 
recognition  of  the  sense  and  justice  of  his  master, 
upon  both  of  which  he  intended  an  imposition.  To 
say  the  least,  these  acts  transcend  the  supposable 
powers  of  "an  agent  which  performs  ignorantly  and 
blindly  a  work  of  intelligence  and  knowledge." '^ 
They  can  only  be  explained  as  the  operations  of  a 
free  intelligence. 

The  works  of  the  beaver  afford  many  interesting 
illustrations  of  his  intelligence  and  reasoning  capa- 
city. Felling  a  tree  to  reach  its  branches  involves  a 
series  of  considerations  of  a  striking  character.  A 
beaver  seeing  a  birch-tree  full  of  spreading  branches, 
which  to  his  longing  eyes  seemed  quite  desirable, 
may  be  supposed  to  say  within  himself:  "If  I  cut  this 
tree  through  with  my  teeth  it  will  fall,  and  then  I 
can  secure  its  limbs  for  my  winter  subsistence."  But 
it  is  necessary  that  he  should  carry  his  thinking  be- 
yond this  stage,  and  ascertain  whether  it  is  suffi- 
ciently near  to  his  pond,  or  to  some  canal  connected 
therewith,  to  enable  him  to  transport  the  limbs, 
when  cut  into  lengths,  to  the  vicinity  of  his  lodge.  A 
failure  to  cover  these  contingencies  would  involve  him 
in  a  loss  of  his  labor.  The  several  acts  here  described 
have  been  performed  by  beavers  over  and  over  again. 
They  involve  as  well  as  prove  a  series  of  reasoning 

>  Arctic  Explorations,  1.  149. 

'  Sir  William  Hamilton's  definition  of  "  Instinct." 


ANIMAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 


2G3 


ed, 

\  an 

te- 
as a 
,8ter, 

To 
sable 
f  and 

ige- 
i  of  a 


resting 
;  capa- 
olves  a 

er.     A 

anclies, 

^sirable, 

cut  this 

.  then  I 
"     But 
ing  be- 
is  suffi- 
nnected 
e  limbs, 
odge.    A 
olve  him 
described 
er  again, 
reasoning 


ict." 


processes  undistinguishable  from  similar  processes  of 
reasoning  performed  by  the  human  mind. 

Again,  the  construction  of  a  canal  from  the  pond 
across  the  lowlands  to  the  rising  ground,  upon  wlilch 
the  hard  wood  is  found,  to  provide  a  way  for  the 
transportation  of  this  wood  by  water,  is  another  re- 
markable act  of  animal  intelligence.  A  canal  is  not 
absolutely  necessary  to  beavers  any  more  than  such  a 
work  is  to  mankind;  but  it  comes  to  both  alike  as  the 
result  of  progress  in  knowledge.  A  beaver  canal 
could  only  be  conceived  by  a  lengthy  and  even  com- 
plicated process  of  reasoning.  After  the  conception 
hod  been  developed  and  executed  in  one  place,  the 
selection  of  a  line  for  a  canal  in  another  would  in- 
volve several  distinct  considerations,  such  as  the 
character  of  the  ground  to  be  excavated,  its  surface, 
elevation  above  the  level  of  the  pond,  and  the  supply 
of  hard  wood  near  its  necessary  terminus.  These, 
together  with  many  other  elements  of  fitness,  must 
be  ascertained  to  concur  before  the  work  could  be 
safely  entered  upon.  When  a  comparison  of  a  large 
number  of  these  beiver  canals  has  demonstrated  that 
they  were  skillfully  and  judiciously  located,  the  in- 
ference seems  to  be  unavoidable  that  the  advantages 
named  were  previously  ascertained.  This  would  re- 
quire an  exercise  of  reason  in  the  ordinary  accepta- 
tion of  the  term. 

And  this  leads  to  another  suggestion.  Upon  the 
Upper  Missouri  these  canals  are  impossible,  from  the 
height  of  the  river  banks;  and  besides  this  they  are 
unnecessary,  as  the  cotton-wood,  which  is  the  prevail- 
ing tree,  is  found  to  the  edge  of  the  river.  While, 
therefore,  canals  are  unknown  to  the  Missouri  beavers, 


264 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


they  are  constantly  in  use  among  the  beavers  of 
Lake  Superior.  On  the  other  hand,  the  "beaver- 
slides"  so  common  and  so  necessary  on  the  Upper 
Missouri,  are  i  nnecessary,  and  therefore  unknown,  in 
the  Lake  Superior  region.  Contrary  to  the  common 
opinion,  is  there  not  some  evidence  of  a  progress  in 
knowledge  to  be  found  in  the  beaver  canal  and  the 
beaver-slide?  There  was  a  time,  undoubtedly,  when 
the  canal  first  came  into  use,  and  a  time,  consequently, 
when  it  was  entirely  unknown.  Its  first  introduction 
was  an  act  of  progress  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  artifi- 
cial state  of  life.  The  use  of  the  slide  tends  to  show 
the  possession  of  a  free  intelligence,  by  means  of 
which  they  are  enabled  to  adapt  themselves  to  the 
circumstances  by  which  they  are  surrounded.  In  like 
manner  it  has  been  seen  that  the  lodge  is  not  con- 
structed upon  an  invariably  typical  plan,  but  adapted 
to  the  particular  location  in  which  it  is  placed.  The 
lake,  the  island,  and  the  bank  lodge  are  all  different 
from  each  other,  and  the  difference  consists  in  changes 
of  form  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  the  situation.  These 
several  artificial  works  show  a  capacity  in  the  beaver 
to  adapt  his  constructions  to  the  particular  conditions 
in  which  he  finds  himself  placed.  Whether  or  not 
they  evince  progress  in  knowledge,  they  at  least  show 
that  the  beaver  follows,  in  these  respects,  the  sugges- 
tions of  a  free  intelligence. 

"Instinc*,"  says  Dr.  Reid,  "is  the  habitual  power 
of  producing  effects  like  contrivances  of  reason,  yet 
so  far  beyond  the  intelligence  and  experience  of  the 
agent,  as  to  be  wholly  unexplainable  by  reference 
to  them."  Habitual  acts  can  only  be  understood 
from  human  experience.     Acts  to  be  performed  habit- 


ANIMAL  PSTGHOLOGT. 


205 


ually  or  mechanically  must  first  be  learned  by  an 
exercise  of  intelligence.  It  is  a  very  unsatisfactory 
explanation  of  the  works  of  a  beaver,  to  aflirm  that 
he  was  endowed  at  his  birth  with  a  mechanical  skill 
which,  by  the  laws  of  mind,  must  be  acquired  by 
experience.  An  assertion  that  the  nets  of  a  beaver  in 
felling  a  tree,  in  constructing  a  dam,  or  in  excavating  a 
canal,  are  beyond  his  intelligence,  is  mere  assumption, 
as  well  as  a  contradiction  of  terras.  This  conclusion 
flows  legitimately  from  the  original  blunder  of  at- 
tempting arbitrarily  to  endow  animals  with  a  super- 
natural principle,  which  enables  them  to  perform 
ignorantly  and  blindly  works  of  intelligence  and 
knowledge.  While  this  mysterious  "agent"  performs 
its  ofRce  intelligently,  the  animal  is  a  mere  machine, 
according  to  the  theory  of  Descartes.  In  other  words, 
he  is  made  a  dwelling  for  a  principle  of  intelligence; 
but  this  principle  being  superior  to,  and  in  some  way 
independent  of,  the  mute,  holds  no  other  relation  to 
him  than  that  of  master  and  guide.  Can  anything 
be  found  in  the  whole  range  of  human  speculation 
more  feeble  than  this  expedient  of  human  reason  to 
explain  a  class  of  phenomena  as  simple  as  the  sim- 
plest in  the  natural  world? 

The  practice  of  beavers,  while  moving  their  short 
cuttings  by  water,  of  placing  one  end  against  the 
throat  and  pushing  it  from  behind,  of  carrying  mud  and 
stones  under  their  throats,  holding  them  there  with 
the  paws,  and  of  packing  mud  upon  their  lodges  and 
dams  by  a  stroke  of  the  tail,  have  elsewhere  been  ex- 
plained. They  are  severally  intelligent  acts,  performed 
sensibly  and  rationally.  Their  method  of  shoving  or 
rolling  the  larger  billets  of  wood  with  their  hips  is 


266 


THE  AMERICAN  BEAVER. 


even  more  ingenious.  The  little  antu  resort  to  a  simi- 
lar expedient  to  move  bitH  of  grain,  but  shove  them 
with  their  shoulders.  Their  ingenuity  and  intelli- 
gence attracted  the  attention  of  ancient  observers, 
several  of  whom  recognized  in  them  the  possession  of 
a  mental  principle.'  Cicero  says  of  the  ant,  who  ex- 
cels the  beaver  in  systematic  industry :  "  In  formicam 
non  modo  sensus,  sed  etiam  mens,  ratio,  memoria."' 
Personal  labor  of  every  kind  and  description  depends 
upon,  as  well  as  evinces,  the  continuous  operation  of 
a  mental  principle. 

Many  animals,  among  which  the  beaver  and  the 
ant  are  good  examples,  provide  a  store  of  provisions 
for  their  sustenance  during  winter.  This  act  shows 
a  forecast  of  the  future.  To  satisfy  present  hunger 
is  a  p'mple  act  of  intelligence;  but  to  anticipate  dis- 
tant wants  and  provide  for  them  is  a  much  higher  act 
of  knowledge.  What  motive  could  induce  the  mutes 
to  make   such  provision   unless   they  knew,  or  had 


*  Ac  veluti  ingentem  formicaB  farris  acervum 
quum  populant,  hicmis  niemorea,  tectoque  reponunt : 
it  nigrum  campis  agmen,  praedamqne  per  herbas 
convectant  calle  angusto;  pars  grandia  trudunt 
obnixae  frumenta  humcris;  pars  agmina  coguut, 
castigantque  moras;  opere  omnis  semita  fervet. 

VlRQIIi,  -^NEID,  iv.  402. 

Ac  si  quis  comparet  onera  corporibns  earum,  fateatur,  nullis 
portione  vires  esse  majores.  Gcrunt  ea  morsu.  Majora  avorssB 
postremis  pedibus  moliuntur,  Immeris  obnixiB.  Et  iis  RepublicsB 
ratio,  memoria,  cura. 

Pliny,  Nat.  Hist.,  Lib.  xi.  c.  xxxvi. 

The  ai  ts  are  a  people  not  strong,  yet  they  prepare  their  meat 
in  the  summer.  Proverbs,  xxx.  25. 

*  De  Nat.  Deorum.    Lib.  iii.  c.  ix. 


ANIMAL   rSYCIIOLUGY. 


207 


learned  by  experience,  that  winter  followe<l  the  slim- 
mer, and  that  the  preservation  of  their  lives  recjiiired 
the  accumulation  ol' a  surplus  of  food?  The  posses- 
sion of  a  thinking  principle  renders  all  of  these  acts 
perfectly  intelligible  as  well  as  simple;  and  without 
it  they  are  wholly  incapable  of  a  rational  ex[)la- 
nation. 

The  beaver,  in  a  comparative  estimate,  is  a  low  ani- 
mal in  his  structural  organization,  as  has  been  shown. 
He  lives  upon  the  coarsest  food,  is  slow  of  motion 
upon  land,  of  low  respiration,  monotrematous,  and 
aquatic.  His  vision  is  short  in  range,  and  his  brain 
is  without  those  convolutions  which  are  regarded  as 
indications  of  mental  power.  In  the  great  catalogue 
of  animals,  which  is  constructed  upon  the  basis  of 
anatomical  structure,  he  rises  no  higher  than  the  rat, 
the  porcupine,  or  the  squirrel.  There  is  no  reason  for 
supposing  that  he  is  more  intelligent  vhan  any  other 
rodent  of  a  corresponding  grade.  And  yet  by  his 
sagacity,  his  industry,  and  his  artificial  erections,  he 
has  raised  himself  to  a  very  respectable  position,  in 
human  estimation,  for  intelligence  and  architectural 
capacity.  It  is  because  he  needs  these  erections  to 
promote  his  comfort  and  safety  that  man  is  able  to 
follow  the  evidences  of  his  skill  and  intelligence,  and 
to  become  satisfied  of  their  extraordinary  character. 
If  then  an  animal,  with  such  an  inferior  organization, 
manifests  so  large  an  amount  of  mental  capacity,  of 
how  much  more  must  those  be  capable  whose  organ- 
ization is  found  to  be  so  much  superior! 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  highest  forms  of  intel- 
ligence among  the  mutes  are  to  be  found  in  the  car- 
nivorous animals.  As  an  order  they  live  pre-eminently 


2GS 


THE   AMKHICAN    HKAVER. 


hy  their  witH;  and  thoy  are  ini(|ueHti<mably  ondowed 
with  inontul  (Mipacitios,  of  higher  relativo  power,  to 
enable  them  to  maintain  their  existence.  The  pro- 
pagation and  perpetuation  of  their  species  to  the 
present  time,  testifies  to  the  continuous  triumph  of 
their  superior  intelligence  over  the  feebler  capacities 
of  the  non-cam ivoroua  mutes  up(m  whom  they  sub- 
sist. They  are  able  to  endure  hunger  and  fatigue, 
to  wait  and  watch  for  prey,  and  to  invent  and  prac- 
tice many  artifices  for  the  capture  of  the  latter.  Many 
of  them  have  great  physical  strength,  a  large  brain, 
powerful  respiration,  and  remarkable  lleetness  of  foot. 
Their  personal  appearance  commands  both  respect 
and  admiration.  Who  ever  looked  into  the  clear 
round  eye  of  a  lion,  without  being  impressed  with  the 
thought  that  there  was  a  quick  intelligence  and  a 
powerful  will  behind  it,  which,  in  the  open  plain  or 
in  the  thicket,  it  would  be  hard  to  deceive  and  diffi- 
cult to  overmatch ! 

The  carnivorous  animals  construct  nothing,  save  a 
burrow  or  a  den.  Their  personal  al.l^,  which  have 
never  been  carefully  studied,  furnish,  therefore,  the 
only  sources  of  information  concerning  their  mental 
endowments.  But  enough  of  these  have  been  wit- 
nessed and  authenticated  to  illustrate  the  subject.  It 
will  be  sutficient  for  the  present  purpose  to  introduce 
one  or  two  cases. 

The  fox,  when  pursued,  often  takes  to  the  bed  of  a 
shallow  stream  to  conceal  his  footprints  and  suppress 
his  scent;  or  runs  back  upon  his  own  track  for  some 
distance,  and  then,  making  a  long  leap  at  a  right 
angle,  changes  his  direction.  These  devices  were 
well  adapted  to  embarrass  and  foil  his  pursuers.     It 


ANIMAL    rSVCIlDLOQT. 


2GD 


seemH  to  Ik?  an  uiuivoidablo  inferenco  that  tho  fox 
understood  tho  inoaiiH  hy  which  ho  wjih  followed,  and 
that  he  {possessed  suflieient  acutoncHH,  an  wvW  as  .siil>. 
tlety  of  mind,  to  coiintoract,  in  thcHe  ways,  the  d'lnjicr. 
These  expedients  presuppose  a  consciousness  of  peril, 
which  of  itself  involves  a  knowledge  of  antecedeiit 
occurrences;  and  the  execution  of  tho  device  shows 
deliberation,  conclusion,  and  an  exercise  of  the  will. 
The  nets  themselves  are  unexplainable  except  as 
manifestations  of  a  free  intelligence. 

This  anim)!l,  whose  cunning  is  proverbial,  has  been 
known  to  simulate  death,  to  secure  his  deliverance, 
under  circumstances  somewhat  trying  to  his  fortitude. 
A  fox  one  night  entered  the  hen-house  of  a  farmer, 
and  after  destroying  a  large  number  of  fowls,  gorged 
himself  to  such  repletion  that  he  could  not  pass  out 
through  the  small  aperture  by  which  he  had  entered. 
The  proprietor  found  him,  in  the  morning,  sprawied 
out  upon  the  floor  apparently  dead  from  surfeit;  and 
taking  him  up  by  the  legs  carried  him  out,  unsus- 
pectingly, and  for  some  distance  to  the  side  of  his 
house,  where  he  dropped  him  upon  the  grass.  No 
sooner  did  Reynard  find  himself  free  than  he  sprang 
to  his  feet  and  made  his  escape.'  He  seemed  to  know 
that  it  was  only  as  a  dead  fox  that  he  would  be  al- 
lowed to  leave  the  scene  of  his  spoliations;  and  yet 
to  devise  this  plan  of  escape  required  no  ordinary 
effort  of  intelligence,  while  its  execution  rather  taxes 
our  iionfidence  in  his  possession  of  such  steadiness  of 


'  This  incident  was  communicated  to  the  author  by  C'""!!!  C. 
White,  of  Aurora,  New  York,  who  carried  out  the  fox.  His 
veracity  is  unimpeachable. 


270 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


i  11 


nerves.  A  man  placed  in  similar  circumstances,  and 
resorting  to  a  like  expedient,  would  be  conscious  of 
several  distinct  processes  of  reasoning.  It  is  difficult 
to  perceive  how  these  processes  could  be  possible,  in 
either  case,  except  by  the  agency  of  a  mental  princi- 
ple or  how  they  could  differ  as  modes  of  thought. 

The  several  acts  of  the  mutes  here  cited,  as  illustra- 
tions of  the  exercise  of  reason,  can  be  fully  explained 
as  manifestations  of  a  thinking  principle.  When  the 
possession  by  them  of  such  a  principle  is  recognized, 
all  difficulties  vanish;  and  their  conduct  appears  in  an 
intelligible  light.  It  also  follows  that  their  intelligence 
must  necessarily  be  free  to  act  within  the  range  of  its 
powers.  In  this  discussion  the  relative  strength  of 
their  mental  capacities  is  left  out  of  view,  as  imma- 
terial. Compared  with  those  of  the  human  intellect 
they  are  feeble  and  slight,  but  within  their  several 
spheres  of  life  and  action  they  are  ample  for  the 
promotion  of  their  individual  happiness. 

V.  Imagination.  Whether  the  animal  mind  exhibits 
the  quality  of  imagination  it  may  be  difficult  to  sub- 
stantiate. Although  it  is  one  of  the  highest  quali- 
ties of  the  mental  principle,  yet  it  is  manifested  in 
many  simple  forms.  The  playfulness  of  childhood, 
which  is  also  commonly  exhibited  by  the  young  of 
animals,  is  superinduced,  seemingly,  by  the  pictures 
or  images  formed  in  the  mind  by  the  fancy  or  imagin- 
ation. This  faculty,  Kames  observes,  "is  the  great 
instrument  of  recreation."  If  an  attempt  is  made  to 
explain  the  songs  of  birds,  it  will  be  necessary  to  re- 
sort to  imagination,  since  the  art  itself  is  imaginative. 
Animals  are  known  to  dream  from  physical  indica- 
tions during  sleep,  and  dreams  are  the  works  of  mem- 


1^    :>''9ri 


ANIMAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 


271 


ory  and  imagination.  Too  little  is  known  of  the  lives 
of  animals  to  show  whether  they  possess  this  quality 
in  any  sensible  degree. 

VI.  The  Will.  A  doubt  has  been  entertained  whether 
the  mutes  possess  a  will,  like  the  will  of  man,  because 
responsibility  must  follow  its  exercise.  Their  own 
lives,  at  least,  are  intrusted  to  their  keeping,  the  pres- 
ervation of  which  is  the  highest  form  of  responsibility. 
With  a  free  volition,  they  rise  up  or  lie  down;  they 
go  or  come;  they  play  or  quarrel,  they  bark,  or  mew, 
or  sing;  and  they  lie  in  wait  for  prey,  or  seek  it  by 
long  excursions.  These  several  acts  are  performed 
under  the  influence  of  motives,  and  were  preceded  by 
an  ''xercise  of  the  will.  Unless  the  mute  has  a  free 
choice  between  alternative  courses,  one  of  which  may 
lead  to  danger  and  the  other  to  safety,  his  conduct 
would  be  unintelligent.  He  might,  lose  his  life  at  any 
moment.  The  will  is  that  mental  power  that  sets 
the  body  in  motion  to  execute  a  resolution  previously 
reached  by  a  process  of  reasoning.  It  is  the  power 
which  adopts  and  executes  the  conclusions  of  the 
judgment.  Unless  a  diflference  can  be  discovered  in 
the  quality  of  the  will,  as  displayed  by  the  mutes  and 
by  mankind,  there  is  no  means  of  distinguishing  one 
from  the  other,  except  in  the  degree  of  its  strength 
and  persistency.  A  will,  also,  presupposes  the  exist- 
ence of  a  mental  principle,  of  which  alone  it  ca*^  be 
predicated. 

VII.  Appetites  and  Passions.  The  mutes  have  the 
appetites  and  passions  in  common  with  mankind.  No 
difficulty  has  ever  been  found  in  conceding  a  commu- 
nity of  characteristics  in  these,  the  inferior,  manifest- 
ations of  the  mental  principle.    While  they  differ  in 


272 


THE   AMERICAN   BEAVER 


m 


l.l'l 


the  degree  of  their  strength,  some  of  them  are  un- 
doubtedly wanting  among  the  lowest  grades  of  the 
vertebrate  animals.  As  a  portion  of  them  excel  man- 
kind in  the  acuteness  of  the  senses,  by  means  of  which 
the  feebleness  of  their  mental  powers  is  supplemented, 
so  in  some  of  the  appetites  and  passions  they  may 
possess  a  delicjicy  of  sensibility  of  which  the  human 
species  are  incapable.  In  their  affections  for  their 
young,  and  for  their  mates  (among  such  as  pair),  the 
highest  evidence  of  their  sensibility  is  found.  They 
also  display  courage,  fidelity,  and  gratitude,  and  to 
these,  perhaps,  in  some  rare  instances,  benevolence 
raay  be  added.  For  the  possession  of  these  qualities, 
wiiich  are  undistinguishable  from  the  corresponding 
qualities  manifested  by  the  human  mind,  and  for  the 
beautiful  illustrations  of  maternal  affection  which 
they  display,  they  are  entitled  to  our  regard. 

Captain  Stansbury  gives  the  following  account  of  a 
blind  pelican  upon  one  of  the  islands  of  the  Great 
Salt  Lake  of  Utah :  "  In  a  ramble  around  the  shores 
of  the  island,  I  came  across  a  venerable  looking  old 
pelican,  very  large  and  fat,  which  allowed  me  to  ap- 
proach him  without  attempting  to  escape.  Surprised 
at  his  apparent  tameness,  we  examined  him  more 
closely,  and  found  that  it  was  owing  to  his  being  en- 
tirely blind,  for  he  proved  to  be  very  pugnacious, 
snapping  freely,  but  vaguely,  on  each  side,  in  search  of 
his  enemies,  whom  he  could  hear  but  could  not  see. 
As  he  was  totally  helpless,  he  must  have  subsisted  on 
the  charity  of  his  neighbors,  and  his  sleek  and  com- 
fortable condition  showed,  that  like  beggars  in  more 
civilized  communities,  he  had '  fared  f^uraptuously  everv 
day.*     The  food  of  these  birds  consists  entirely  of 


iiii 

HI 


ANIMAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 


273 


fish,  which  they  must  necessarily  obtain  from  Boar 
River,  from  the  Weber,  the  Jordan,  or  from  the  Warm 
Springs  on  the  eastern  side  of  Spring  Valley,  at  all  of 
which  places  they  were  obi^erved  fishing  for  food.  The 
nearest  of  these  points  was  more  than  thirty  miles 
distant,  making  necessary  a  flight  of  at  least  f*ixty 
miles  to  procure  and  transport  food  for  the  subsistence 
of  their  young.  Immense  numbers  of  young  birds 
vvere  huddled  'ogether  in  groups  abo.^t  the  island, 
under  the  charge  of  a  grave  looking  nurse  or  keeper, 
who,  all  the  time  that  we  were  there,  was  relieved 
from  guard  at  intervals  as  regularly  as  a  sentinel."' 

Incidents  illustrative  of  this  class  of  qualities  could 
be  multiplied  to  an  indefinite  extent.    They  tend  in  a 


^  Stansbury's  Salt  Lake,  p.  193.  Another  incident  related  by 
the  same  writer,  expressive  of  the  maternal  solicitude  as  well  as 
intelligence  of  the  pelican, 'S  worth  repeating.  "Rouriding  the 
north  point  of  Antelope  Island,  we  calltid  at  the  little  isl(;t,  to 
which  we  had  given  the  aame  of  Egg  Island,  to  look  after  our 
old  friends,  the  gulls  and  pelicans.  ♦  ♦  *  One  poor  fellow, 
about  four  inches  long,  driven  by  the  extremity  of  his  fear,  took 
to  the  water  of  his  own  accord,  when  he  was  swept  out  by  the 
current  to  the  distance  of  two  or  three  hundred  yards,  and  seemed 
quite  bewildered  by  the  novelty  of  his  situation.  As  soon  as  he 
was  discovered  by  the  old  birds,  who  lK)vered  over  our  hvada  in 
thousandc  watching  our  proceedings  with  great  an.\iei_y  and  noise, 
one — the  parent,  we  judged,  from  its  greater  solicitude — lighted 
down  by  its  side,  and  was  soon  joined  by  half  a  dozen  others, 
who  began  guiding  the  little  navigator  to  the  shore,  flying  a 
little  way  before  him,  and  again  alighting,  the  mother  swimming 
beside  him,  and  evidently  encouraging  him  in  this,  his  first  adven- 
ture upon  the  water.  The  little  fellow  seemed  perfectly  to  under- 
stand what  was  meant,  and  when  we  sailed  away,  was  advancing 
rapidly  under  the  convoy  of  his  friends,  and  was  within  a  few 
yards  of  the  shore,  which  he  dou))tless  reached  in  safely." — lb. 
p.  20T. 

18 


274 


THE  AMEBICAN  BEAVER. 


II 


striking  manner  to  sliow  the  uniformity  of  the  opera- 
tions of  the  mental  principle  throughout  the  animal 
kingdom. 

VIII.  Lunacy  of  Animals.  Under  the  preceding 
heads  we  have  discussed  a  small  number  out  of  the 
great  body  of  facts  which  tend  to  establish  the  exist- 
ence of  a  thinking  reasoning  principle  among  the 
mutes;  and  also  tending  to  show  that  the  qualities 
manifested  by  it  cannot  be  distinguished  from  the  cor- 
responding manifestations  of  the  human  mind,  except 
in  the  degree  of  their  strength.  Cases  have  occurred 
among  animals  where  their  mental  powers  were  over- 
thrown, and  lunacy  supervened,  furnishing  the  same 
external  indications  which  follow  the  overthrow  of 
the  human  intellect,  so  that  the  animal  has  been  seen 
in  both  conditions,  when  in  the  full  possession  of  his 
fiiculties,  and  when  their  functions  have  been  sus- 
pended. Dr.  Kane  relates  several  cases  in  point  among 
his  dogs,  occasioned  by  the  absence  of  light  during  the 
long  arctic  winter  while  he  was  ice  bound  in  the  far 
north.  He  remarks  as  follows:  "The  mouse-colored 
dogs,  the  leaders  of  my  Newfoundland  team,  have  for 
the  last  fortnight  been  nursed  like  babies.  No  one 
can  tell  how  anxiously  I  watch  them.  They  are  kept 
below,  tended,  fed,  cleansed,  caressed,  and  doctored, 
to  the  infinite  discomfort  of  all  hands.  To-day  I  give 
up  the  last  hope  of  saving  them.  Their  disease  is  as 
clearly  mental  as  in  the  ^ase  of  any  human  being. 
The  more  material  functions  of  the  poor  brutes  go  on 
without  interruption;  they  eat  voraciously,  retain 
their  strength,  and  sleep  well.  But  all  the  indica^ 
tions  beyond  this  go  to  prove  that  the  original  epilepsy, 
which  wa?  the  first  manifestation  of  brain  disease 


ANIMAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 


275 


a- 
al 

ng 
ihe 

istr 

the 
ties 
cor- 
cept 
rred 
)ver- 
same 
w  of 
seen 
3f  bis 

1    8US- 

imong 
igthe 
he  far 
;olored 
a.ve  for 

0  one 
•e  kept 

\[)cU)redj 

1  give 
tse  is  as 

being. 
IS  go  on 
,    retain 

indicar 
spiiepsy, 

disease 


among  them,  has  been  followed  by  a  true  lunacy. 
They  look  frenziedly  at  nothing,  walk  in  straight  and 
curved  lines,  with  anxious  and  unwearying  persever- 
ance. They  fawn  on  you,  but  without  seeming  to 
appreciate  the  notice  you  give  them  in  return ;  push- 
ing their  heads  against  your  person,  or  oscillating 
with  a  strange  pantomime  of  fear.  Their  most  intel- 
ligent actions  seem  automatic;  sometimes  they  claw 
you  as  if  trying  to  burrow  into  your  seal  skins;  some- 
times they  remain  for  hours  in  moody  silence,  and 
then  start  oflf  howling  as  if  pursued,  and  run  up  and 
down  for  hours.  So  it  was  with  poor  Flora,  our 
*wise  dog.'  She  was  seized  with  the  endemic  spasms, 
and  after  a  few  days  of  violent  paroxysms,  lapsed  into 
a  lethargic  condition,  eating  voraciously,  but  gaining 
no  strength.  This  passing  off,  the  same  3razy  wild- 
ness  took  possession  of  her,  and  she  died  of  brain 
disease  (arachnoidal  effusion)  in  about  six  weeks."' 

This  account  is  so  full  and  specific  that  it  needs  no 
comment.  Such  a  case  of  lunacy  was  only  needed 
to  complete  the  analogy  which  seems  to  be  sustained 
in  every  other  of  the  more  common  manifestations  ot 
the  animal  and  of  the  human  mind. 

From  the  foregoing  but  most  incomplete  and  im- 
perfect consideration  of  some  of  the  branches  of  the 
subject  of  Animal  Psychology,  it  would  be  venture- 
some to  urge  any  other  than  the  more  simple  conclu- 
sions.    Two  or  three  only  will  be  suggested. 

In  the  first  place,  the  term  "instinct,"  to  explain 
the  intelligent  acts  of  animals,  should  be  abandoned. 
This  term  was  an  invention  of  the  metaphysicians  to 

*  Arctic  Explorations,  i.  157. 


276 


THE  AMERICAN   BEAVER. 


Hi 


assert  and  maintain  a  fundamental  distinction  be- 
tween the  mental  principle  of  the  human  species  and 
that  of  the  inferior  animals.  With  its  multiform  defi- 
nitions, and  with  the  repeated  enlargements  '^f  its 
signification,  it  is  wholly  incapable  of  explaining  the 
phenomena  of  animal  intelligence.  As  a  vain  tattempt 
to  embody  a  system  of  philosophy  in  a  definition,  it 
has  proved  a  failure,  as  might  have  been  expected. 
When  carried  to  its  legitimate  results,  it  endows  every 
animal  with  a  supernatural  principle,  and  makes 
each  of  his  intelligent  acts  little  short  of  a  miracle. 
As  a  term  or  invention  it  is  functus  officio.  With  its 
disuse  the  subject  of  Animal  Psychology  is  freed  from 
all  extraneous  embarrassments,  and  the  mental  phe- 
nomena manifested  by  the  mutes  can  be  investigated 
and  explained  on  philosophical  principles. 

In  the  second  place,  we  are  led  to  recognize  in  the 
mutes  the  possession  of  a  free  intelligence.  In  other 
words,  that  they  are  endowed  with  a  mental  principle 
which  performs  for  them  the  same  office  that  the 
human  mind  does  for  man;  that  this  principle  is  free 
to  act  in  view  of  motives  and  premises;  and  that  it  is 
ample  in  measure  to  enable  each  animal,  within  his 
sphere  of  action,  to  preserve  his  life  and  govern  his 
conduct.  This  conclusion  seems  necessarily  to  follow 
from  their  possession  of  the  organs  of  sense,  from 
their  manifestation  of  the  appetites  and  passions,  and 
from  their  ability  to  perceive,  to  renicmber,  to  reason, 
and  to  will. 

And  in  the  third  and  last  place,  as  we  are  unable, 
in  similar  specific  acts,  to  find  any  difierence  in  kind 
between  the  manifestations  of  perception,  appetite 
and  passion,  memory,  reason  and  will  on  the  part  of 


ANIMAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 


277 


)e- 

nd 

jfi- 

its 

bbe 

apt 

.it 

ted. 

rery 

ikes 

icle. 

1  its 

from 

phe- 

tated 

n  the 
other 
aciple 

the 

free 
it  it  is 
in  his 
rn  his 
follow 

from 
IS,  and 
reason, 

unable, 
in  kind 
tppetite 
part  of 


LS 


a  mute,  and  the  corrospondiii}^  manil'ostiitions  on  the 
part  of  a  man,  we  are  led  to  tlie  conchision  that  the 
diflbronce  is  one  of  degree,  and  not  of  kind;  and 
therefore  that  the  principle  from  whicli  they  emanate 
is  tlie  same  in  kind,  but  bestowed  in  dift'crent  meats- 
ure,  to  adapt  each  si)ecies  to  its  particular  mode  of 
life. 

This  theory,  when  rightly  considered,  is  . .either 
novel  nor  subversive  of  moral  truth.  The  general 
intelligence  of  mankind,  which  embodies,  in  a  greater 
degree  than  is  usually  supposed,  the  highest  sense  of 
the  human  understanding,  never  adopted  the  spec- 
ulations of  the  metaphysicians  with  reference  to  the 
endowments  of  the  inferior  animals.  On  the  con- 
trary, it  has  ever  been  disposed  to  recognize  in  them 
the  possession  of  a  rational,  thinlcing  principle,  as  free 
to  act  as  the  mind  of  man.  To  this  view  later 
writers  are  drawing  sensibly  nearer.  Among  the 
number.  Max  Midler  has  quite  recently  put  forth 
some  very  sensible  observations.  "I  mean,"  he  re- 
marks, "to  claim  a  large  share  of  what  we  call  our 
mental  faculties  for  the  higher  animals.  These  ani- 
mals have  sensation,  perception,  memory,  toill,  and  in- 
tellect— only  we  must  restrict  intellect  to  the  inter- 
lacing of  single  perceptions.  All  these  points  can  be 
proved  by  irrefragable  evidence.  *  *  *  There  are, 
no  doubt,  many  people  who  are  as  much  frightened 
at  the  idea  that  brutes  have  souls,  and  are  able  to 
think,  as  by  4he  blue  ape  without  a  tail.'  *  *  -^ 
It  does  not  follow  that  brutes  have  no  souls,  because 
they  have  no  human  souls.  It  does  not  follow  that 
the  souls  of  men  are  not  immortal,  because  the  souls 
of  animals   are  not  immortal;   nor  has  the  major 


'if  a 


278 


THE   AMERICAN    BEAVER. 


H 


premiss  ever  been  proved  by  any  philosopher,  nnmely, 
that  the  souls  of  brutes  must  necessarily  be  destroyed 
and  annihilated  by  death.  Leibnitz,  who  has  defended 
the  immortality  of  the  human  soul  with  stronger 
arguments  than  even  Descartes,  writes :  '  I  found  at 
last  how  the  souls  of  brutes  and  their  sensations  do 
not  at  all  interfere  with  the  immortality  of  human 
souls;  on  the  contrary,  nothing  seems  better  to 
establish  our  natural  immortality  than  to  believe  that 
all  souls  are  imperishable.""  To  nearly  the  same 
efl'ect,  Agassiz  had  previously  expressed  himself. 
"When  animals  fight  with  one  another,"  he  says, 
"when  they  associate  for  a  common  purpose,  when 
they  warn  one  another  in  danger,  when  they  come  to 
the  rescue  of  one  another,  when  they  display  pain  or 
joy,  they  manifest  impulses  of  the  same  kind  as  are 
considered  among  the  moral  attributes  of  man.  The 
range  of  the  passions  is  even  as  extensive  as  that  of 
the  human  mind,  and  I  am  at  a  loss  to  perceive  a  dif- 
ference in  kind  between  them,  however  much  they 
may  differ  in  degree,  and  in  the  manner  in  which 
they  are  expressed.  *  *  *  This  argues  strongly 
in  favor  of  the  existence  in  every  animal  of  an  im- 
material principle  similar  to  that  which,  by  its  excel- 
lence and  superior  endowments,  places  man  so  much 
above  animals.  Yet  the  principle  exists  unquestion- 
ably, and  whether  it  be  called  soul,  reason,  or  in- 
stinct, it  presents  in  the  whole  range  o^  organized 
beings  a  series  of  phenomena  closely  linked  together; 
and  upon  it  are  based  not  only  the  highest  manifestar 
tions  of  mind,  but  the  very  permanence  of  the  specific 


>  Science  of  Language.     Scribner's  tu.,  ^ec.  ix.  p.  349. 


ANIMAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 


279 


3d 

ed 

5er 

at 

do 

lan 

to 
[hat 
ame 
iself. 
says, 
vhen 
ne  to 
An  or 
18  are 

The 

at  of 

adif- 

they 
|which 
•ongly 
j\  im- 

excel- 

much 
testion- 

or  in- 

;aiuzed 

rether; 
[nifestar 
jspecific 

349. 


difFerencca  which  characterize  every  organism.  Most 
of  the  arguments  of  philosophy  in  favor  of  the  im- 
mortality of  man  apply  equally  to  the  pennanonce  of 
this  principle  in  other  living  beings."' 

With  two  or  three  further  suggestions  tiiis  discus- 
sion will  be  concluded.  It  cannot  be  said  that  the 
views,  herein  presented,  tend  to  lower  the  personal 
dignity  of  man;  but,  on  the  contrary,  they  rather 
serve  to  distinguish  his  position.  His  great  superior- 
ity is  abundantly  assured  by  the  bestowment  of  the 
highest  structural  organization,  of  the  fullest  mental 
endowments,  and  by  the  possession  of  articulate 
speech.  The  distance  which  separates  him  from  the 
highest  of  the  mutes  is  sufficiently  immeasurable  to 
relieve  his  pride  from  all  sense  of  humiliation  from 
the  consciousness  of  sharing  the  principle  of  intelli- 
gence with  the  latter.  Sidney  Smith  has  touched 
this  point  with  his  satirical  pen  in  the  following  lan- 
guage :  "  I  confess  I  feel  myself  so  much  at  Qase  about 
the  superiority  of  mankind — I  have  such  a  marked 
and  decided  contempt  for  the  understanding  of  every 
baboon  T  have  ever  seen — I  feel  so  sure  that  the  blue 
ape  without  a  tail  will  never  rival  us  in  poetry,  paint- 
ing, and  music,  that  I  see  no  reason  whatever  that 
justice  may  not  be  done  to  the  few  fragments  of  soul 
and  tatters  of  underittanding  which  they  rany  really 
possess."  The  mentil  principle  here  derided,  while 
its  possession  is  admitted,  has,  nevertheless,  the  in- 
herent dignity  of  which  a  thinking  principle  cannot 
be  divested.  By  his  pre-eminent  endowments,  man 
stanas  at  the  head  of  the  animal  kingdom,  the  great 

>  Nat.  Hist.  U.  S.,  i.  64. 


280 


TUG   AMERICAN    HEAVER. 


exotnplar  of  this  principle,  and  neparated  by  a  wide 
interval  from  its  (jtlier  posHOHHors.  The  separation  in  as 
marked  and  real  as  could  be  dewired.  But  it  is  doubt- 
ful whether  he  poHsewHes  the  sum  of  the  powers  of  the 
princii)le  called  mind.  It  is  precisely  hero,  as  it  seems 
to  the  writer,  that  God  has  revealed  a  feature  in  the 
plan  of  creation  no'  less  wonderful  than  the  original 
conception  of  a  mental  principle.  Having  called  into 
existence  this  marvelous  principle,  and  created  a  series 
of  organic  forms,  He  apportioned  it  r.mong  them  all 
in  such  measure  as  to  adapt  each  individual  being  to 
the  sphere  of  life  in  which  he  was  designed  to  move. 
The  widest  possible  range  for  the  exercise  and  devel- 
opment of  mind  was  thus  provided.  A  full  compre- 
hension of  its  powers  and  capacities  must  therefore 
be  sought  in  its  varied  manifestations  by  the  several 
species.  It  is  not  probable  that  the  whole  of  its  powers 
are  possessed  by  any  species :  but  rather  that  in  their 
totality  tjiey  are  to  be  found  among  the  members  of 
the  animal  kingdom  as  a  whole.  A  true  system  of 
mental  philosophy,  therefore,  cannot  be  developed 
until  all  the  manifestations  of  this  principle  are  com- 
prehended. 

The  hiatus  between  man  and  the  nearest  species 
below  him  in  the  scale  of  intelligence  is  so  wide  as  to 
disturb  the  symmetrical  gradation  of  the  several 
orders  of  animals.  We  can  neither  conjecture  that 
some  intermediate  order  has  fallen  out  of  existence, 
nor  assume  the  permanent  degradation  of  any  existing 
species;  but,  on  the  contrary,  it  seems  to  have  been  a 
part  of  the  original  plan  of  creation  that  man  should 
stand  without  a  compeer  or  contestant,  the  indisputable 
head  of  the  series  of  organic  forms,  and  the  recipient, 


ANIMAL    rSVCIIOL(H;Y. 


281 


lie 
as 
bt- 
he 
rns 
the 
nal 
nto 
Ties 
L  all 
gto 
lOve. 
evel- 
iipre- 
•efore 
veral 
owers 
their 
era  of 
em  of 
oped 
com- 

ipecies 
as  to 
everal 
that 
stence, 
xisting 
been  a 
ihould 
utable 
cipient, 


'e 


in  tlio  InrgoMt  nioasuiv,  of  tho  ;_'il't  of  tlic  nuMitul  prin- 
ciple. Some  explanation  of  his  oxccssivi'  HnpiTJority 
may  bo  found  in  tho  progrosH  ho  has  mudo  sinco  his 
emergonce  from  his  primitive  condition.  Vov  ages, 
the  bounds  of  which  are  unknown,  mankind  woro  im- 
mersed in  a  barbarism  the  depths  of  which  can  be 
but  feebly  conceived.  They  were  without  arts,  with- 
out agriculture,  without  ilocks  or  herds,  depending 
chielly  upon  fish,  and  tiie  spontaneous  fruits  of  the 
earth  for  subsistence.  There  are  glimpses  aflbrded  to 
us,  here  and  there,  of  a  state  of  society  in  which  the 
family  relations  were  unknown,  and  in  which  violence 
and  passion  reigned  supreme.  The  contrast  between 
such  a  condition  of  mankind,  and  that  of  the  present 
time,  is  so  great  that  it  is  difficult  to  recognize  in  these 
primitive  barbarians  our  lineal  progenitors.  Out  of 
that  condition  man  has  struggled  through  a  long  and 
painful  experience  until  he  has  been  finally  rewarded 
with  the  amenities  of  civilization.  Language  has 
been  the  great  instrument  of  this  progress,  the  power 
of  which  was  increased  many  fold  when  it  clothed 
itself  in  written  characters.  He  was  thus  enabled  to 
perpetuate  the  results  of  individual  experience,  and 
transmit  them  through  the  ages.  Each  discovery 
thus  became  a  foundation  on  which  to  mount  up  to 
new  discoveries.  With  the  knowledge  he  has  gained, 
and  the  elevation  he  has  expeT'ienced,  it  is  now  diffi- 
cult to  realize  the  low  condition  from  which  his  line 
of  advancement  commenced.  Portions  of  the  human 
family  are  still  found  in  the  darkness  of  ignorance, 
and  in  the  feebleness  of  mental  imbecility;  and  yet, 
although  the  distance  of  their  intellectual  separation 
is  very  great,  it  is  much  less  than  that  between  the 


r-     — 


282 


THE    AMF.inCAN    HKAVKK. 


Ml 


latter  and  tlic  nuwt  iiitcllij^t'iit  of  tlie  Inlbrior  animiils. 
The  (lifU'rence  oxjjrcs.soH  tlu;  Hupcriority  of  his  Htnio- 
tural  orjrimi/atlon  and  o'.'  his  mental  ondowincnts. 

On  tho  other  hand,  can  it  he  truly  aflirincd  that 
the  inferior  aninialN  have  heen  stationary  in  their 
knowledge  from  the  commencement  of  their  exist- 
ence? This  conclusion  should  not  be  over-hastily 
assumed.  Within  the  period  of  human  observation, 
their  ])rogress  has  seemed  to  be  inconsiderable — but 
yet  not  absolutely  nothing.  For  example,  dogs  under 
training  have  developed  special  capacities,  such  as  the 
pointer  and  the  setter,  and  have  transmitted  them  to 
their  offspring.  This  shows  not  only  progress,  but 
that  of  so  marked  a  character  as  to  work  a  transform- 
ation in  the  characteristics  of  the  animal.  Many  ani- 
mals, as  the  elephant,  the  horse,  the  bear,  and  even 
the  hog — the  type  of  stupidity — have  been  taught  a 
variety  of  performances,  under  the  stimulus  of  re- 
wards, of  which  they  were  previously  ignorant. 
These  examples,  however,  are  less  important  than 
the  knowledge  acquired  by  undomesticated  animals, 
and  transmitted,  as  a  part  of  their  experience  and 
knowledge,  in  the  species  in  which  they  were  ac- 
quired. Of  this  kind  are  the  several  varieties  of  the 
beaver  lodge  and  dam,  and  the  development  and  per- 
petuation of  the  idea  of  a  beaver  canal.  When  care- 
ful and  patient  investigation  has  been  made  of  these 
several  subjects,  the  results  will  materially  modify, 
in  all  probability,  our  present  impressions. 

Finally,  is  it  to  be  the  prerogative  of  man  to  uproot 
and  destroy  not  only  the  masses  of  the  animal  king- 
dom numerically,  but  also  the  great  body  of  the  spe- 
cies?   If  the  human  family  maintains  its  present  hos- 


^B 


ANIMAL   rSTCIIOUKiY 


••Oil 


uproot 
111  king- 
|the  spe- 

jnt  bos- 


tile   attitude   towfinl    tlio   muteH,   ninl    IncroaH-H   i'l 
nunilxTH  and  in  civilization  at  the  proH«'nt   ratio,  ^nv, 
Hoveral  centurion  to  come,  it  is  plain  to  l»e  Heen  tl.  it 
many  siHicies  of  aninialH  niUHt  lx»  extirpated  I'roin  the 
earth.     An  arre8t  of  the  progress  of  the  human  race 
can  alone  prevent  the  dismemherment  and  destruct'.  n 
of  a  large  portion  of  the  animal  kingdom.    Domestica- 
tion or  extermination  is  the  alternative  already  offered 
not  alone  to  species,  hut  to  families  and  orders  of  ani- 
mals. It  may  he  that  this  result  was  never  intended  in 
the  councils  of  Providence.     It  is  not  unlikely  that 
God  has  adjusted  a  Imlance  among  tlu?  several  orders 
of  animals  which  cannot  be  overthrown  except  at  the 
peril  of  the  aggressor;  and  that  in  some  mysterious 
way  this  balance  is  d -stined  to  be  preserved.     The 
present  attitude  of  man  toward  the  mutes  is  not  huch, 
in  all  respects,  as  befits  his  superior  wisdom.     Wo 
deny  them  all  rights,  and  ravage  their  ranks  with 
wanton  and  unmerciful  cruelty.     The  annual  sacri- 
fice of  animal  life  to  maintain  human  life  is  frightful, 
if  considered  only  with  reference  to  its  excess  beyond 
our  rea.^onable  wants.     When  the  Creator  made  man 
omnivo)'ou8,  He  designed  his  use  of  animal  food.     It 
is  not  S'3ntimentalism  but  rather  sense,  to  say  that  he 
should  exercise  the  right  with  reason  and  forbearance. 
When  we  claim  that  the  bear  was  made  for  man's  food, 
we  forget  that  man  was  just  as  much  made  to  be  food 
for  the  bear;  and  that  our  right  to  eat  the  bear  rests 
upon  no  higher  sanction,  than  his  coequal  right  to  feast 
upon  our  flesh  if  he  overcomes  in  battle.     Man's  do- 
minion over  the  mutes  is  in  virtue  of  his  superior 
endowments;  but  it  is  equally  clear  that  the  great 
Author  of  existence  designed  the  happiness  of  the 


284 


THE   AMERICAN  BEAVER. 


smallest  and  least  endowed  of  all  His  creatures  as 
^completely  and  as  absolutely  as  He  did  the  happiness 
of  man.  If  we  recognize  the  fact  that  the  mutes  pos- 
sess a  thinking,  and  reasoL'ing,  and  perhaps  an  im- 
mor^^^al  principle,  our  relations  to  them  will  appear  to 
us  in  a  different,  and  in  a  better  light. 


(I 


j^PPENDIOES. 


DR.  W.  W.  ELY'S  NOTES  ON  CHAPTER  II. 


SAMUEL  HEARNE'S  ARTICLE  ON   THE  BEAVER. 

From  Hearne's  Journey,  dc.    Lond.  ed.  1795,  p.  226. 


BENNETT'S  ARTICLE  ON  THE  BEAVER. 

From  Oardena  and  Menagerie.    Zoolog.  Soc'ty.    Quadrupeds.  I.  153. 


(285) 


ITOTE. 


\; 


The  annexed  articles  by  Hearne  and  Bennett,  Appendices 
B  and  C,  are  the  best  and  most  authentic  extant  upon  the 
beaver.  They  have  been  made  the  foundation  of  the  later 
accounts  of  this  animal  which  are  found  in  the  Encyclope- 
dias, and  in  current  works  on  Natural  History.  It  was  their 
brevity,  and  consequent  in' ompleteness,  which  induced  the 
pablicatioD  of  this  work,  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  a  more 
detailed  exposition  of  the  habits  of  the  beaver,  and  of  his  ar- 
tificial erections. 


(286) 


Jices 
I  the 
later 
ilope- 
their 
I   the 
more 
lis  ar- 


^ 

H 


s   ^ 


s   i: 


%> 


'^      JfiJ      •« 


!^ 


<tt 


«J 


1:1 


«H 


5    ■«    ? 
(^    I  "^ 


<; 


•^ 


% 


9h 


^ 


«o 


-«  ^  5 

5  -  ** 

►5  00  ^ 

.^  «N  > 


u 


5^  i! 


i. 


-2     OQ 


S 


IS 

3 


288 


APPENDICES. 


II.  Differences  between  the  European  and  the  American 

Beavers. 

If  naturalists  have  found  it  difficult  to  agree  as  to  the  pioper 
classification  of  the  beaver,  they  have  been  scarcely  less  troubled 
to  decide  whether  the  beavers  of  the  Old  and  the  New  World  con- 
8ti<^ute  one  or  more  species.  Some  reference  to  this  subject  might 
be  expected  in  a  work  like  the  present;  and  in  order  to  limit  the 
discussion  I  propose  to  examine  only  the  views  given  by  Dr. 
Brandt,  as  being  the  latest  and  most  elaborate,  and  probably  the 
most  conclusive,  that  can  be  adduced  in  favor  of  the  diversity  of 
species. 

In  a  scries  of  essays  published  in  the  "  Memoires  de  I'Academie 
de  St.  Petersbourg,"  Brandt  has  (liscus.sed  many  questions  relating 
to  the  beaver  with  great  ability  and  thoroughness  of  investiga- 
tion. His  conclusions  on  the  point  before  us  are  expressed  in 
the  following  summary : 

"  1.  From  the  investigations  of  Kuhl,  Oken,  and  previously  of 
Brandt  and  Ratzeburg,  no  outward  characteristic  appears  afford- 
ing evidence  of  a  specific  difference. 

"  2.  That  in  respect  to  the  relative  size  of  the  body,  the  Ameri- 
can beaver,  from  previous  experiences,  does  not  differ  from  the 
European  in  any  essential  particular,  and  probably  not  at  all. 

"3.  That  in  respect  to  the  relation  of  the  head-,  ear-,  foot-,  and 
tail-formation,  no  distinctive  characteristics  have  yet  been  dis- 
covered. 

"4.  That,  on  the  other  hand,  by  the  comparison  of  eight  skulls 
of  the  European  beaver,  with  five  skulls  of  beavers  from  the 
northwest  coast  of  America,  manifold  constant  differences,  in 
part  very  striking,  become  apparent  between  the  beavers  of  the 
Old  and  New  World. 

"5.  That  many  of  the  differences  in  these  skulls  involve  also 
variations  in  the  external  structure. 

"  6.  That,  finally,  the  well-known  histological  variation  in  the 
castor  sacs,  which  exists  between  the  beavers  of  the  Old  and  the 
New  World,  and  also  the  difference  in  the  appearance  of  their 
secretion,  seem  to  establish  a  specific  difference  between  the  two.'" 
P.  62. 

Excluding  then,  as  we  may  do,  all  but  the  two  points  named, 


DR.  W.  W.  ELY  S   NOTES   ON   CHAPTEK   II. 


289 


the 

and 
Uis- 


also 

in  t\ie 
and  the 
)f  their 


named, 


viz.,  \'ie  differences  observed  in  the  skull,  and  in  the  eastoreum 
organs,  it  remains  to  inquire  whether  these  variations  are  con- 
stant and  essential,  and  such  as  charactc;ize  spCLios,  or  only 
vari'jties. 

The  fact  that  the  beavers  of  the  Old  and  the  Now  World  present 
certain  points  of  difference  in  the  skull  formation  is  not  to  bo  de- 
nied, and  the  attempt  haa  been  made  to  eliminate  those  which 
are  considered  unessential  from  those  which  possess  an  invariable 
character  in  the  two  races,  so  as  to  establish  jusi.  grounds  for  the 
specific  distinction.  It  is  important  to  realize  the  tendency  to 
variation  which  exists  in  the  cranial  structures,  and  I  tlunefore 
quote  from  Brandt,  from  an  article  "TTjion  the  variation  of  par- 
ticular bones  of  the  Beaver  Skull,"  op.  cit.  p.  GT. 

"If  we  have  the  opportunity  of  comparing  with  each  other  a 
large  number  of  skulls  of  one  and  the  same  species,  we  not  unfre- 
quently  learn,  on  closer  inspection,  that  uo  one  of  them  agrees 
perfectly  with  the  others,  but  that  all  show  more  or  less  striking 
variations.  These  variations  are  often  so  considerable,  that  if  we 
thus  examined  but  two  or  three  skulls,  we  should  have  no  hesi- 
tancy in  deciding,  according  to  the  prevailing  method  of  determ- 
ining zoological  species,  that  there  was  a  specific  difference  in 
the  animals  to  which  such  skulls  belonged.  The  examination  of 
a  larger  number  of  beaver  skulls  convinced  me  how  erroneous 
would  be  a  conclusion  drawn  from  the  examination  of  a  small 
number  of  specimens. 

"The  following  remarks,  therefore,  have  only  for  their  object  to 
name  the  variations  which  I  have  seen  occur  in  the  skulls  of  the 
species  Castor,  and  to  show  that  it  is  only  by  snveral,  or  better, 
by  many  specimens  of  one  and  the  same  species,  that  we  can 
with  any  degree  of  certainty  determine  the  boundaries  of  such 
species." 

In  the  coraparison.s  made  by  Brandt  of  European  and  American 
beaver  skulls,  he  refers  to  eight  of  the  former,  and  five  of  the  lat- 
ter variety.  We  have,  in  our  collection,  over  ninety  skulls  of  the 
American  beaver  from  the  region  near  Lake  Superior,  and  through 
the  kindness  of  Prof  James  Hall,  of  the  New  York  State  Mu- 
seum, and  Prof  Spencer  F.  Baird,  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
I  have  had  the  opportunity  to  examine  skulls  from  other  American 
localities,  in  all  over  one  hundred  specimens.     Prof  Baird  has 

19 


290 


APPENDICES. 


also  favored  ruo  with  a  Euronean  skull,  No.  65G4,  from  the 
SmithsoBian  Inf>titution.' 

By  conipariag  the  skulls  of  this  extensive  sories  with  the  de- 
scriptions given  by  Brandt  in  the  following  article,  I  find  that 
many  more  resemblances  may  be  traced  between  the  European 
and  the  American  beaver  than  he  has  observed,  thus  reducing  the 
amount  of  constant  differences  between  the  two  varieties. 

We  give  the  translation  of  the  whole  of  his  article  in  which 
the  two  kinds  of  skulls  are  compared,  adding  to  the  sections  the 
results  obtained  by  an  examination  of  the  skulls  of  the  American 
series  referred  to  above. 

"  Memoires  de  I'Acaderaio  de  St.  Petersbourg,  VI.  Serie,  p.  53. 

"  §  1.  Superior  aspect  of  different  beaver  skulls. 

"  If  we  examine  the  skull  of  the  European  and  of  the  American 
beaver,  we  notice  the  following  special  differences: 

"  I .  The  portion  of  the  frontal  bone  lying  between  the  arches  of 
the  eyebrows,  in  all  the  European  skulls  is  shorter  and  broader, 
much  broader  than  long;  but  in  the  American,  narrower  and 
somewhat  longer  (quite  as  broad  as  long) ;  so  that  the  middle 
transverse  diameter  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the  frontal  bone — 
that  part  lying  between  the  eyes — is  in  the  American  skulls 
nearly  or  quite  as  long  as  the  arch  of  the  eyebrows ;  but  in  the 
European  it  appears  longer  than  this." 

.  This  is  true  generally  of  the  American  skulls;  but  in  six  speci- 
mens the  average  length  of  the  eyebrow  portion  is  81'":],  'md 
the  average  vjridth  of  the  middle  portion  is  1"  08'"^,  being  an 
excess  of  width  of  26'"|. 

"  2.  In  the  European  skulls  the  arches  of  the  eyebrows  are 
shorter,  and  their  posterior  tubercles,  opposite  the  highest  point 
of  the  malar  bone,  are  strongly  developed.  In  the  American,  on 
the  contrary,  the  posterior  eyebrow  processes,  only  indicated, 
sometimes  scarcely  indicated  at  all,  or  at  least  but  slightly  devel- 
oped, can  be  seen  back  of  the  highest  point  of  the  malar.  The 
anterior  eyebrow  process  is  in  all  the  European  skulls  likewise 
stronger  than  in  the  American." 

The  highest  point  of  the  malar  in  American  skulls  is  in  advance 
of  the  posterior  processes;  but  in  one  skull  (No  20)  it  is  on  a  line 


>  I  am  also  indebted  to  Prof.  Baird  for  the  use  of  several  works,  relating 
tu  (he  beaver,  from  tiie  Smidisouiun  Institutiou. 


DR.  W.  W.  ELY  S   NOTES  ON   CHAPTER   II. 


201 


le 

le- 
lat 
lan 
the 

lich 
the 
icaa 

1.53. 

rican 

hesof 
aader, 
T  and 
[Qiddle 
jone — 

skulls 

ia  the 

speci- 
%  'iud 
|eing  an 

)W3  are 
jt  point 
hcan,  on 
idicated, 
ly  devel- 
Lr.     The 
[likewise 

advance 
Ion  a  line 

L  rclatiug 


with  those  procosses,  as  in  tho  European  variety.  In  tlit>  older 
and  larger  American  .skulls,  i)()tli  pmeesses  are  xtroniriy  developed, 
particularly  tlie  anterior.  In  many  .skulls  tlie  posterior  proeesses 
are  a.s  strongly  marked  as  in  the  European  skull.  In  the  young 
New  York  skull  they  arc  even  stronger  tlian  in  the  young  and 
larger  European  skull. 

"3.  The  snout,  measured  from  the  inferior  orhital  opening  to 
the  inferior  corner  of  the  nostril  in  two  Euro|.ean  skulls  of  ecpial 
size  (Nos.  50  and  186  of  the  Kiew  Col.),  is  hroader  and  somevvliat 
longer  than  in  an  American  skull  of  ecpial  size  in  the  Academic 
Museum. 

"  4.  The  nasal  bones  show  the  greatest  variations.  Their  length 
in  all  the  European  is  much  above  one-third  the  length  of  tlie 
skull,  measured  from  the  incisor  teeth  to  the  crista  occipitalis ; 
while,  on  the  contrary,  in  the  three  larger  of  the  American  skulls 
the  length  of  the  nasal  bones  is  only  a  little  if  any  (»ver  one-third, 
and  the  smallest  not  even  one-third  the  length  of  the  .skull.  The 
nasal  bones  of  the  si.x  older  skulls  lying  before  me  of  the  European 
beaver  are  therefore  longer,  and  extend  more  or  less  far  poste- 
riorly, i.e.  ra^re  or  less  beyond  the  anterior  prominence  of  the 
arch  of  the  eyebrows,  so  that  they  (the  nasal  bones)  lie  with  their 
posterior  borders  nearly  or  quite  opposite  the  middle  of  the  mar- 
gins of  the  orbits.  In  a  young  Polish  beaver  (No.  57  of  the  Kiew 
Col.)  they  reach,  however,  only  to  the  anterior  third  of  the  orbital 
ring  (note  —  our  Caucasian  skull  can  serve  as  an  example  of 
strong  lengthening  of  the  nasal  bonq^) — and  in  our  young  Lap- 
land beaver  they  lie  nearly  as  in  our  California  beaver  skull,  op- 
posite only  the  circumference  of  the  anterior  border  of  the  orbital 
ring.  In  none  of  the  five  American  skulls,  lying  before  me,  on 
the  contrary,  do  the  nasal  bones  extend  beyond  the  anterior 
prominence  of  the  eyebrows  In  nearly  all  the  skulls  of  the 
European  beaver,  compared  with  the  five  American  ones  lying 
before  me,  the  nasal  bones  are  in  form  longer  in  the  middle  and 
posterior,  however,  in  general  narrower,  so  that  their  breadth  in 
their  middle  varies  between  one-fourth  and  one-fifth  of  their 
length,  while  in  our  five  American  skulls  the  breadth  of  their 
middle  portion  attains  to  between  one-third  and  one-fourth  of 
their  length.  Although  the  nasal  bones  of  the  American  beaver 
are  thus  on  the  whole  broader,  still  they  vary  less  in  this  respect 
than  in  their  lesser  length.     The  external  border  of  the  nasal 


292 


APPENDICES. 


bones  of  tliu  Europcun  boavcr  is  not  sc  strongly  curved  as  in  the 
American.  Two  of  tiio  European  slvuils,  however,  approach 
quite  to  the  American  in  tiiis  respect.  The  superior  surface  oi 
tlic  anterior  half  of  the  nasal  bones  is  in  six  of  the  European 
skulls  pretty  plane;  in  two  of  the  others,  on  the  contrary  (Xos.  51 
and  1955  of  the  Kiew  Col.),  as  in  all  the  live  American,  it  is 
strongly  convex.  In  regard  tr  thj  character  (or  relation)  of  the 
nasal  bones,  there  re.iiains,  iherefore,  in  consequence  of  the  pre- 
cediii'?  roma;  k^,  only  their  mi>ro  considerable  length  in  compari- 
son with  the  skull  as  a  mark  of  the  European  beaver;  since  the 
greater  lengthening  po.steriorly  of  the  .uisal  bones  cannot  be  so 
rigo-ously  proven  in  all  European  beavers,  especially  not  in  our 
Lapland  specimens.  It  is  possible,  however,  that  the  nasal  bones 
are  less  prolonged  posteriorly  in  younger  animals  than  in  full- 
grown,  so  that  '11  this  way  the  full-grown  European  miglit  be 
recognized  by  its  posteriorly  prolonged  nasal  bones.  Confirm- 
atory of  this  view  are  the  following  facts :  1.  That  in  all  of  the  six 
old  skulls  lying  before  me  of  European  beavers,  the  posterior  ex- 
tremities of  the  nasal  bones  reach  more  or  less  far  posteriorly, 
and  that  this  happens  in  a  young  skull  of  the  Kiq,w  Collection 
(No.  57),  the  length  of  which  is  tour  lines  greater  than  that  of 
the  one  from  Lapland ;  aid  2,  that  iu  one  very  young  American 
skull,  the  npsal  bones  extend  backward  somewhat  less  relatively 
than  in  the  full  grown." 

It  is  in  respect  to  the  nasal  bones  that  the  greatest  diflFerence 
has  been  observed  between  the  European  and  the  American 
beavers.  The  most  striking  obvious  diB'erence  being  the  back- 
ward extension  of  the  nasals  in  the  European  variety.  In  ex- 
treme cases,  their  posterior  margins  are  found  behind  the  middle 
of  the  margin  of  the  orbital  rii.g;  and  over  the  anterior  margin 
of  the  upper  molars — a  po'nt  probably  never  reached  by  cie 
nasals  iu  the  American  skull;  but  this  feature  of  the  European 
skull  is  not  constant.  Brandt  has  not  found  it  in  the  Polish  and 
the  Lapland  beaver,  and  he  expressly  yields  the  point  as  to  its 
hcxuji',  a  characteristic  mark  of  the  European  variety;  it  canaot, 
he  says,  "be  rigorously  proven  in  all  Enropem  skulls."  In  the 
New  York  t^kull  the  nasals  are  elongated  as  re^jresented  in  the 
Polish  skull.  It  does  not  appear  that  the  lengthening  of  the 
nasals  in  the  American  skull  is  invariably  due  to  age — since 
their  proportional  length,  in  some  young  skulls,  perhaps  equals 


DR.  W.  W.  ELY  S   NOTES  ON   CHAPTER   II. 


2!)  3 


ch 

OT 

an 
51 

,  is 
the 
jrc- 
ari- 

the 
(C  so 
I  our 
>ones 

fuU- 
[»t  bo 
nfirm- 
be  six 
lor  cx- 
viorly, 
lection 
that  o{ 
lerican 
atively 

fereijce 
letican 
back- 
In  ex- 

I  margin 
by  ii*6 
luropean 
Jisb  and 
IS  to  its 
cauuot, 
In  the 
in  the 
of  the 

.. since 

Lg  equals 


that  of  older  speclmona.  The  form  of  theso  bones,  i.e.  their 
width  and  convex  outer  margin,  ditter  iiinoh  in  American  speci- 
mens. Having  examined  this  subject  with  mueli  earc,  Brandt 
eoncluden  in  respect  to  the  nasal  bones,  that  tlicro  remains  "trnhj 
their  more  conaiderable  leiKjlh  in  cumparinon  with  the  sktill  an 
a  mark  of  the  Europnin  beaver." 

I  have  carefully  examined  over  one  hundred  skulls  in  reference 
to  this  point,  the  measurements  l)cing  made  with  callipers,  the 
length  being  estimated  from  the  inferior  border  of  the  intermax- 
illary to  the  occipital  crest  in  the  medii-n  line. 

In  six  American  skulls  the  average  length  is  5"  39'")^.  The 
average  length  of  the  nasals  is  1"  80'"j,  an  excess  of  13'"^ 
over  one-third  the  length  of  the  skull. 

In  three  skulls  having  an  average  length  of  4"  42'",  the 
length  of  the  nasah  is  1"  58'"^,  making  the  excess  over  oue- 
third  34'". 

In  seven  skulls  whose  length  respectively  is  5"  10'",  3"  95'", 
5"  10"',  5"  13"',  4"  94'",  5"  13'",  5"  17'",  the  excess  of 
length  of  the  nasals  over  one-third  the  length  of  the  skull  is  (j3"', 
34"',  30'",  42'",  40"',  51"',  47'". 

In  the  New  York  skull.  No.  1072.  in  which  the  backward  pro- 
tection of  the  nasals  resembles  some  of  the  E'.iropean  skulls,  the 
excess  over  one-third  is  but  11'".  In  the  European  .skull.  No.  0504, 
in  which  the  backward  projection  of  the  nasals  appears  to  have  its 
maximum,  this  excess  is  29'",  which  is  much  less  than  in  many 
American  skulls.  We  must  conclude,  therefore,  that  the  back- 
ward projection  of  the  nasals,  and  their  greater  proportionate 
length  as  compared  with  American  skulls,  are  not  constant  and 
distinctive  features  of  the  European  variety. 

"5.  The  frontal  portion  of  the  lachrymal  bone  of  the  American 
beaver  is  more  triangular,  posteriorly  twice  as  broad  as  ante- 
riorly, and  smaller  than  in  the  European ;  it  is  also  nearly  limited 
to  the  space  betwetn  the  malar  and  frontal  bones;  since  it  im- 
pinges only  with  its  anterior  border- like  narrow  end  upon  a  small 
process  of  the  upper  jaw,  or  even  only  approaches  it.  In  the 
beavers  of  the  Old  World,  however,  the  larger,  more  quadrangu- 
lar, anteriorly  and  posteriorly  equally  broad  frontal  portion  of  the 
lachrymal  bone  lies  not  only  between  the  laalar  and  frontal  bones, 
but  is  united  in  similar  extent  equilaterally  with  the  superior 
maxillarv," 


294 


APPENDICES. 


I  find  Amcrioiiii  skulls  in  wliicli  the  upper  rturfiKH*  of  tlin  luchry- 
niul  bone  has  thr  qtiiulniti^iiiiir  form,  as  broad  nntorinrly  as  |tos- 
U>riorly,aiiil  united  an  in  tlu;  KuroiK'an  Hkuil,  tollii- intt>nnaxillary, 
wiiilo  in  tiie  greater  number  uf  instances  the  desuriptiun  aiiove 
given  is  found  to  be  correct. 

'■  §  2.  Ai'.terior  aspect  of  the  skull. 

"On  tlu!  closer  study  of  tlio  beaver  skull  anteriorly,  wo  learned 
that  in  all  the  examined  skulls  of  the  European  beaver  the  nasal 
opening  appears  triangular,  iideriorly  narrow,  and  hence  more  or 
less  pointed;  while  tl'.e  lateral  nuirgins,  raised  like  a  crest,  and 
bounding  it  inferiorly,  approached  each  other  ot  a  more  or  less 
acute  angle.  In  the  Arne>i''an  akull.s,  on  the  contrary,  the  na.sal 
opening  has  a  (piadrangular  form,  and  appears  below  only  a  little 
narrower  than  aliove;  while  the  lower  ends  of  the  crest-like  ridges 
of  the  lateral  margins  are  nearly  parallel,  and  curved  inward  but 
Httlo." 

The  tendency  to  the  quadrarigular  form  of  the  nasal  opening 
in  the  American  l)eavcr,  and  to  the  triangular  form  <jf  the  Euro- 
pean, is  evident.  Yet  there  are  American  sl.ulls  where  the  form 
of  the  opeulng  is  nearly  if  not  quite  as  triangular  as  in  the  Euro- 
pean. 

"A  comparison  of  the  both  equally  largo  European  skulls  with 
the  American  skull  of  equal  size  of  the  Kuprianow  skeleton, 
ghowed  that  the  inter-  and  inferior  maxillary,  together  with  the 
incisor  teeth,  are  strikingly  broader  la  the  European,  but  some- 
what lower  than  in  the  American  skull.  So  much  so  indeed  that 
the  br«adth  of  the  American  intermaxillary  is  to  that  of  the  Eu- 
ropean as  9:13,  nearly  as  3  :  4.  The  breadth  of  a  single  inci- 
sor tooth  of  the  upper  jaw  in  the  European  beaver  is  something 
more  than  one-third  the  breadth  of  the  anterior  inferior  border  of 
the  intermaxillary,  while  each  tingle  upper  incisor  of  the  American 
beaver  is  equivalent  in  breadth  to  one-third  the  transverse  di- 
ameter of  the  inferior  border  of  the  intermaxillary." 

In  tho  measurement  of  live  skulls  I  find  the  breadth  across  the 
incisor  portion  of  the  intermaxillary  to  average  88"',  and  the 
average  width  of  a  single  upper  incisor  to  be  30'".  In  five  other 
skulls  the  intermaxillary  width  is  78"',  and  the  width  of  an  inci- 
sor is  27'".  In  another  skull  the  intermaxillary  width  is  91'", 
and  the  width  of  the  incisor  is  32'".  This  is  "something  more 
than  oae-third." 


F)R.  W.  W.  ELYS   NOTKS  ON   rilAI'TER   11. 


296 


Eu- 

inci- 

tUing 

rder  of 

lerican 

se  di- 


"  §  3.  Latoml  fts|>oct  uf  \\w  lu'iivt-r  skull. 

"A  c(»i»|)iirirtoii  ill  prolilf  uf  tin*  two  Kiir<i|HMiii  HkiilU  ih"iiMoii(mI 
above  (Nos. .')')  iiiul  IS((  Kit'w),  witli  ii  «kiill  of  (miuuI  size  of  tho 
Kuprianow  Hki'irtoii,  pivt;  the  fullowiiiff  ri'sults: 

"  1.  As  lias  iilrtiady  licni  nicntiniit'd  uhDve,  ustrui>,Mil  lino  tlniwu 
from  the  untt'rior  oxtiviuil y  of  tho  iittsiil  boiu!  lo  tho  crista  occij)- 
italis,  shows  no  ossciitiiil  (lifffn-nco  betwoon  tho  Ainoricun  (of 
Kiiprianow)  and  tho  two  European  .skuilrt  of  corrospoiidiii^  sizo. 
Tho  sniiK!  result  is  also  furnished  by  a  ooiuparison  of  all  thu  other 
Kuropeiin  and  Ainorieait  skulls. 

"2.  The  zyfj;oniati(!  process  of  the  superior  iiui.xillary  iippoars 
on  tho  external  surface  of  that  i)orti«»n  lyinj?  up  near  the  superior 
maxillary  process  of  tho  malar  bone,  in  the  European  at  least  half 
as  broad,  generally  more  than  Iialf  as  broad  as  the  adjacent  end 
of  the  superior  maxillary  process  of  the  malar  bon<!,  and  in  fact 
even  in  the  younger  specimens  (also  in  No.  57  Kiew,  and  iu  our 
Lapland  skulls). 

"In  all  of  the  three  larifor  American  skulls  the  zygomatic  pro- 
cess of  tho  superior  maxillary  lying  near  the  anterior  and  upper 
malar  bono,  attains  to  only  about  one-quarler  the  breadth  of  tho 
upper  end  of  tho  superior  maxillary  process  of  the  malar  l)ono, 
and  appoar.s,  at  least  in  its  middle  and  upper  portion,  only  as  a 
border,  a  condition  o.spocially  noticeable  in  our  smallest  American 
skulls,  in  which  even  tho  lower  end  of  the  zygomatic  process  of 
the  superior  maxillary  appears  like  a  border." 

In  five  American  skulls  the  zygomatic  process  of  the  superior 
maxillary  equals,  or  exceeds  in  breadth,  one-half  tho  width  of  the 
corresponding  portion  of  the  malar. 

"3.  The  nasal  process  of  the  interma""  ;  of  tho  older  and 
old  European  skulls,  in  which  the  postoiio  ends  of  tho  incisors 
appear  to  extend  less  high  than  in  the  older  American,  is  pro- 
vided with  a  longitudinal  depression  of  greater  or  less  size  run- 
ning from  before  backward,  above  the  posterior  ends  of  tho  upper 
incisors  where  they  are  located  iu  the  skull,  which  depression  is 
also  present  in  tho  very  young  American  skulls  in  which,  in  va- 
riation from  the  three  larger  American  skulls  lying  before  me,  the 
posterior  ends  of  the  incisors  go  backward  in  a  straighter  direc- 
tion than  in  tho  European  skulls  of  different  ages. 

"  4.  The  malar  bone  of  the  European  appears  in  general  higher 
in  the  middle  of  its  broader  portion. 


290 


ArrKNDICES. 


1- 

m 

st^f 

1: 

"r>.  Tin*  riil>rt'  InrnnMl  hy  the  piirictnl  urnl  frootiil,  l))*liiriil  and 
Im'Iow  iIm'  |ni-i|crii)r  tijlHTcIc  of  tlio  i'y«'*)r()\v  iirclics,  in  tho  Ku- 
ropctui  nktill,  in  more  (■niisiilcraltlf,  uud  ciittTs  into  coinbitiatinn 
with  a  rid^it  cluviitinf^  itself  out  uf  thu  h(|Uuuioiis  portion  of  tliu 
t(>ni|Minil,  wliicii  rid^u  iu  tliv  Aaicric-tui  in  tJ^iMiurully  wanting,  ur 
only  indifiitrd.'' 

Hrundt'H  lur^ost  Anu>ricaii  skull  was  hnt  a  modiuiii  sizod  ono, 
iiiciisiirin}^  f)"  21'"  liy  ;{"  CO'".  In  an  Am<Mican  skull  of  this 
ti'\£(3  bofon;  iu(3  tlio  rid^fs  in  (|Uostion  «!xist;  but  in  tliu  oldur  and 
lur;,'(!r  skiiils  tiii-y  an!  stroni^ly  dt'Volo|MM|. 

"(>.  Till!  Iiook-fornicd  'H'occss  of  tlio  z^'goinatic  proccrts  of  tho 
toinponil  l)ont'  lif.s  with  its  anterior  point,  in  tho  AmiTican  l)i;avor, 
hardly  or  only  a  littlo  ix'liind  th«'  anterior  iiorder  of  tho  touiporal 
fossa,  whilo  in  tho  Kiiro|)('aa  lutavor  it  always  lies  nioro  or  lo^a 
ht'hind  it.  In  tho  Enrojioan  boavor  tho  ond  of  tho  zygomatic 
process  of  the  touiporal  bone  appears  on  the  whole  more  ap- 
proached to  tho  occiput  and  osseous  auditory  moiUus." 

According  to  my  own  ol)S(!rvatlon,  the  hook-formed  process 
referred  to  above  Is  in  the  American  beaver  longer  than  in  tho 
European.  Wo  have  but  ono  or  two  skulls  in  which  it  appears 
somewhat  shortened,  without  boeoiniiig  as  short  as  in  the  Eu- 
ropean variety.  With  respect  to  the  relations  of  tho  zygomatic 
process  and  tho  auditory  tube,  tho  American  skulls  are  variable, 
and  strong  resemblances  could  undoubtedly  bo  found  to  the  Eu- 
ropean form. 

"7.  In  tho  American  beaver  there  extends  downward  from 
tho  posterior  angle  of  the  posterior  end  of  the  parietal  bono  a 
more  or  le.^s  triangular,  somewhat  curved  process,  which  pro- 
ceeds between  the  posterior  crucial  process  of  the  squamous  por- 
tion of  the  temporal  bono  and  the  squamous  portion  of  tho  occip- 
ital bone.  In  consequence  of  this  but  slightly  indicated  process 
in  many  European  beavers,  as  in  our  Rolaer,  the  posterior  and 
upper  angle  of  the  squamous  portion  of  the  temporal  bone  of  the 
American  beaver  is  generally  more  rounded,  but  in  tho  European, 
triangular  and  shorter." 

I  have  found  but  a  single  and  partial  exception  to  the  above 
statement.  In  an  American  skull.  No.  2031,  S.  I.,  there  is  an 
exact  c'irresitundcnce  between  tho  above-described  processes  and 
those  of  the  European  beaveV,  No.  65<)4,  on  the  left  side  ;  on  the 
right  side  the  American  skull  shows  a  faint  indication  of  the 


DR.  \y.  W.  ELYS    NOTES   OX   rilAITEU    II. 


from 
ho  no  a 
b  pro- 
is  por- 
occip- 
irocesa 
ior  and 
of  the 
ropean, 

above 

19  an 

sea  and 

on  the 

of  the 


iitu'ini  pnic*-S!*or  thi>  piiriotal,  uiul  ii  slight  Itiit  luori'  uIiiiho  dovoU 
ii|)nit'iit  ii|i|)riirs  ulrto  in  tlii<  Kiiri)|M>iui. 

"8.  In  tlu!  iMdivor  of  the  Nvw  World  tlio  nid  of  the  eor;)niil 
proct'Ms  i)f  \\w  lower  juw  in  r<li^litly  or  not  at  all  lioukcd,  iit  leant 
not  HO  stron^^ly  liooked  as  in  Huventi  Kiiri>|ieun.  In  nil  live  lower 
jaws  of  tlu)  Anierieun  beuver  tlio  anterior  openin<^  of  ;lie  eatmllH 
inlra-maxillaris  lien  untler  the  alveolus  of  the  anterii*r  inferior 
molar,  in  the  Kuro|)eun  l)«>avur  somewhat  before  the  siime." 

In  a  hir^e  pro|)ortion  of  eases  the  coronal  process  of  the  lower 
Jaw  in  the  Anieriean  heaver  prest!nts  tlu;  hooked  form.  It  is  some- 
times very  much  hooked.  The  description  given  (»f  the  anterior 
mental  foramen  corrcHponds  with  my  ohaervations. 

"§4.  Posterior  aspect  of  the  skull. 

"Tho  (fom^'al  form  of  the  squamous  portion  of  the  occipital 
bone  shows  no  essential  variations.  The  middh;  portion  of  ita 
posterior  surface  shows  in  tho  American  as  well  as  in  tho  Eu- 
ropean a  shallower  or  deeper,  broader  or  narrower  groove,  or  a 
single,  sometimes  even  doubled  longitudinal  ridge. 

"  The  occipital  foramen,  on  the  contrary,  in  all  the  European 
skulls,  is  narrower  than  in  the  American,  but  appears  extended 
further  upward  than  in  the  latter,  so  that  its  upper  margin  is 
nearly  on  a  level  with  the  base  of  the  zygomatic  process  of  the 
temporal  bone,  while  in  the  American  .skulls  the  superior  margin 
of  the  occipital  foramen  lies  about  opposite  the  inferior  border  of 
thn  zygomatic  process.  Correspondingly  with  tiie  lirst-describ^d 
relation  of  the  occipital  foramen  the  squamous  portion  of  the  oc- 
cipital bone  over  the  occipital  foramen  appears  in  the  European 
skulls  lower  than  in  the  American — an  appearance  especially 
striking  in  the  two  skulls  of  equal  size  with  the  American  skull 
of  Kuprianow  " 

If  we  examine  a  large  number  of  skulls  of  the  American  beaver, 
the  great  variety  of  forms  presented  by  the  occipital  foramen  ap- 
pears remarkable.  It  is  sometimes  low  and  broad,  again  a 
rounded  arch,  and  in  other  instances  shows  the  high  triangular 
shape  peculiar  to  tho  European  variety.  Tiiis  form  is  found  fre- 
quently in  young,  and  occasionally  in  old  skulls. 

"  §  5.  Inferior  aspect  of  the  European  and  American  skulls. 

"  Tho  groove  occurring  on  tho  inferior  surface  of  tho  base  of 
the  occiput  so  characteristic  of  the  species  Cantor,  from  three  to 
four  lines  deep,  six  to  seven  lines  broad,  posteriorly  six  to  eight 


298 


APPENDICES. 


lines  long,  is  in  all  the  European  skulls  lying  before  me  larger, 
deeper,  and  more  rounded,  and  inclosed  by  ro>inded  margins,  pos- 
teriorly particularly  strongly  curved,  so  that  it  appears  three  to 
four  lines  deep,  six  to  eight  linos  long,  and  posteriorly  six  to 
seven  lines  broad.  In  the  same  skulls  we  find  it  more  or  less 
widened  back  of  its  middle  portion,  while  in  the  American  s'k'^]h 
it  appears  smaller  in  comparison  with  its  breadth,  longer  and 
narrower,  not  widened  back  of  its  middle  point;  at  its  posterior 
end  even  more  or  less  narrowed ;  and  possesses,  in  addition  to 
its  more  lengthened  form,  nearly  straight  margins  and  less  depth. 
Its  longitudinal  diameter  is  about  six  lines,  its  greater  transverse 
dlan-oter  four  to  five  lines,  and  its  depth  two  and  a  half  to  three 
lines." 

Brandt  has  well  described  the  basilar  cavity  as  it  appears  in 
the  American,  compared  with  the  European  beaver.  Its  form, 
however,  in  the  American  beaver,  is  subject  to  variation,  being 
Bonr<f)times  narrow  and  shallow,  with  its  lateral  borders  nearly  , 
parallel,  and  in  some  cases  it  is  more  rounded — its  length  and 
breadth  being  equal — ^thus  presenting  an  approximation  to  the 
European  variety, 

"  Tho  posterior  processes  of  the  inner  sphenoidal  wings  pro- 
ceeding to  the  osseous  bullae  of  the  temporal  bone,  are  in  all  the 
European  shorter,  and  therefore  the  bnllaj  of  the  ossa  temporum 
are  moved  further  forward  than  in  the  American." 

The  European  beaver  skull  before  me  presents  the  peculiarity 
named  above,  and  the  difference  between  the  two  varieties  in  this 
respect,  is  confirmed  by  my  observations. 

"  The  palate  bones  vary  in  the  European  and  American  skulls, 
both  in  length  and  breadth,  as  well  as  in  the  greater  or  less 
acutcness  of  their  anterior  extremity.  In  both  there  are  skulls 
in  which  they  agree  or  vary  more  or  less." 

Having  but  one  European  skull,  I  can  only  state  that  the 
palate  bones  in  this  skull,  and  in  an  American  skull  before  me, 
agree  perfectly  in  form,  and  in  the  position  of  the  palatal  fora- 
mina. There  is  undoubtedly  some  difference  among  American 
skulls  as  to  the  posterior  width  of  the  palate  bones.  The  palatal 
foramina  are  sometimes  opposite  the  space  between  the  second 
and  third  molars,  sometimes  a  little  anterior  to  this. 

"  The  malar  arches  often  appear  in  the  European  beaver  thicker, 
but  in  many  individuals  no  thicker  than  in  the  American." 


DR.  W.  W.  ELYS  NOTES  ON   CHAPTER  II. 


299 


lat  the 
3re  me, 
\\  fora- 
lerican 
[palatal 
1  second 

thicker, 


"  The  symphysis  of  the  inferior  maxillary  is  shorter  and  nar- 
rower in  the  European." 

"In  the  structure  of  the  molar  teeth,  I  did  not,  in  addition, 
succeed  in  finding  any  difference." 

I  have  thus  endeavored  to  show,  from  an  examination  of  a 
large  number  of  skulls  of  the  American  beaver,  that  a  greater 
tendency  to  variation  in  these  structures  exists,  than  was  observed 
by  Dr.  Brandt,  in  the  smaller  number  (five  American  and  eight 
European  skulls)  on  which  he  based  his  differential  character- 
istics.    It  will  be  remembered  that  Brandt  does  not  insist  upon 
the  most  obvious   feature  whicii  distinguishes  the  Old  World 
beaver  from  that  of  the  New  World,  viz.,  the  greater  lengthening 
posteriorly  of  the  nasal  bone^,  since  it  "cannot  be  rigorously 
proven  in  all  cases."     Following  out  then  the  principle  which 
guided  his  researches,  many  additional  exceptional  instances  have 
been  found  to  invalidate  the  conclusion  that  the  European  and 
the  American  beaver  constitute  different  species.     The  extremes 
of  difference,  in  their  aggregate,  on  the  one  side  and  the  other, 
are  sufficiently  striking  to  justify  us  in  regarding  them  as  varie- 
ties of  one  and  the  same  species;  while  the  want  of  constancy 
in  these  peculiarities  suggests  the  inference,  that  these  varia- 
tions are  due  to  long  separation  of  the  races,  and  to  accidental 
causes,  rather  than  to  original  diversity  of  the  stock.    It  is  con- 
ceded by  the  advocates  of  a  diversity  of  species  that  the  beavers 
of  the  Old  and  the  New  World  cannot  be  distinguished  by  any 
external  characteristic.     The  same  is  true  of  their  habits  and  in- 
stincts, except  80  far  as  they  have  evidently  been  controlled  by 
external  influences.    The  castoreum  secretion  is  variable,  even  in 
European  beavers,  and  there  are  facts  to  show  that  the  elements 
of  the  food  of  the  animal  are  sometimes  found  in  it.     The  differ- 
ences observed  in  it,  being  more  of  degree  than  of  kind,  are  not 
of  such  a  character  as  to  render  it  improbable  that  thoy  are  due 
to  the  influence  of  climate,  food,  and  accidental  causes.    That  the 
beavers  of  the  Old  and  the  New  World  would  prove  fertile  inter  se, 
is,  from  their  great  similarity,  almost  certain.     The  beaver  is  a 
very  old  animal,  as  is  proved  by  his  fossil  remains.     As  an 
aquatic  animal,  and  a  vegetable  feeder,  it  is  probable  that  he  lived 
at  a  very  early  epoch,  perhaps  before  the  present  configuration 
of  the  continents,  so  that  from  his  tendency  to  extensive  dis- 
tribution, and  bis  prolific  nature,  there  would  be  nothing  to  hinder 


/  If   ' 


300 


APPENDICES. 


tho  spread  of  a  single  species  over  both  contitients.  That  long 
separation  should  have  developed  certain  peculiarities  of  structure 
might  reasonably  be  expected.  From  the  observed  tendency  to 
variation  exhibited  by  the  skulls  of  consanguinei,  we  should 
even  expect  to  find  these  diflFerences  greater,  in  separated  races, 
than  actually  occurs.  There  appears,  therefore,  to  tho  writer,  to 
be  no  necessity  for  assigning  a  separate  and  distinct  origin  to  the 
beavers  of  the  Old  and  the  New  World,  in  order  to  account  for 
the  differences  which  have  thus  far  been  observed  between  them. 


III.  Gaatoreum  Organs,  and  Generative  Organs. 

The  beaver  has  long  been  celebrated  for  the  peculiar  secretion 
called  castoreum,  which  has  been  much  used  in  medicine.  Other 
animals  furnish  highly  odorous  secretions,  of  which  musk  and 
civet  are  examples,  the  uses  of  which  in  relation  to  the  animals  are 
not  well  understood.  Although  much  attention  has  been  paid  to 
the  anatomy  of  the  beaver,  the  organs  furnisL.'ng  the  castoreum 
have  not  un  frequently  been  erroneously  described.  It  will  be 
seen  in  the  descriptions  and  figures  which  follow,  that  the  beaver 
has  two  sets  of  glandular  organs,  lying  below  the  pubis,  of  which 
the  upper  pair  furnish  the  castoreum,  and  the  lower,  an  oily  secre- 
tion. In  the  Le9ons  d'Anatomie  Comparee  (Cuvier),  vol  viii. 
p.  245,  also  in  the  Dictionnaire  des  Sciences  Mcdicales,  Art. 
Castor,  and  in  the  U.  S.  Dispensatory,  by  Wood  &  Bache,  the 
castoreum  is  incorrectly  referred  to  the  lower  pair  of  organs,  and, 
again,  both  the  upper  and  lower  glands  have  been  said  to  furnish 
this  secretion. 

The  beaver  has  but  a  single  orifice  for  the  genito-urinary  and 
the  intestinal  organs,  and  there  is  nothing  in  its  external  appear- 
ance by  which  its  sex  can  be  determined. 

When  the  animal  is  laid  on  its  back  there  is  a  space  between 
the  pubis  and  the  scaly  tail  about  seven  inches  long,  covered  with 
hair  like  the  rest  of  the  body.  In  the  centre  of  this  space  is  the 
upper  margin  of  the  cloacal  orifice,  which  is  one  and  a  half  inches 
in  length,  just  within  which,  at  the  lower  margin,  is  the  orifice  of 
the  intestine.  The  width  of  the  tail  where  the  scales  commence 
is  about  four  inches. 

On  dissecting  oS  the  skin,  the  skin  muscle  is  brought  into  view, 


"T" 


DR.  W.  W.  ELY  S   NOTES   OX   Cn AFTER   II. 


301 


and  the  forms  of  the  sacs  which  it  covers  are  recosrnizod-.  The 
surface  of  this  muscle  next  to  the  sacs  is  smooth  aiul  but  slightly 
attached  to  them:  with  the  underlying?  muscles  it  forms  an  en- 
velope capable  of  compressing  these  sact»  so  as  to  expel  their  con- 
tents. The  name  given  to  these  organs,  in  view  of  their  supposed 
analogies,  is  preputial  glands,  though  by  Cuvier  and  others  th!* 
term  is  applied  to  the  lower  sacs.  I  shall  call  the  upper,  the  cas- 
toreum  sacs,  and  the  lower,  oil  sacs.  By  the  trappers  they  are 
called  the  bark  stone,  and  the  oil  stone. 


Drawn  by  W.  W.  Ely. 
Note  to  Fiqube  1. 


1. 

2. 
8. 

Muscle  covering  pubis. 

Testicles. 

Penis. 

5. 
6. 

7., 

Oil  sacs. 

Upper  half  of  cloacal  orifice. 

End  of  rectum  within  the  cloacal 

4. 

Castoreum  sacs. 

orifice. 

Figs.  1  an  1  2  exhibit  these  organs  in  a  male  and  a  female  beaver, 
the  latter  being  a  small-sized  animal,  weighing  29^  lbs.  The  cas- 
toreum sacs,  nearest  the  pubis,  are  oval,  flattened,  of  a  light  color 
like  parchment,  and  comnmnicate  freely  with  each  other  by  their 
transverse  portion.  Linear  marks  and  depressions  on  their  sur- 
faces correspond  with  membranous  duplicatures  within,  which 
add  largely  to  the  internal  surface,  forming  septa  and  cells  cov- 
ered and  filled  with  castoreum.  The  larger  folds  have  a  general 
direction  towards  the  outlet  of  the  sacs.     The  sacs  ure  formed  o» 


302 


APPENDICES. 


several  layers  of  oonuective  tissue,  lined  by  a  tender  membrane, 
which  is  colored  by  the  secretion,  and  exhibits  minute  follicular 
apertures.  The  castoreum  is  light  or  dark  yellow  in  different 
cases,  viscid,  adhesive,  gritty  from  the  presence  of  calcareous  mat- 
ter, and  has  a  strong,  peculiar  odor.  Under  the  microscope,  it 
shows  granular  and  epithelial  matter,  and  spherical  crystals  of 

Fia.  2. 


Drawn  by  W.  W.  FAy. 
Note  to  Figures  2  and  3. 


1. 

Uterus  and  Fallopian  tubes. 

.  7. 

Cloacal  cavity  laid  open — above 

2. 

Bladiler  and  ureters. 

the  figure  are  the  vaginal  and 

3. 

Vagina. 

urethral  orifices,  the  clitoris 

4. 

Rectam. 

and  nympbfB. 

6. 

Castoreum  sncs. 

8. 

End  of  rectum. 

6. 

Oil  Eaos. 

9. 

Pubis,  concealing  the  bladder 
and  uterus. 

10. 

Upper  half  of  cloacal  orifice. 

carbonate  of  lime;  these  crystals  are  also  found  in  the  urine  of  the 
beaver.  In  the  male,  the  castoreum  sacs  measured  4^"  in  length, 
2"  10'"  in  width,  with  a  circumference  of  4|".  Weight  of  one 
sac  and  contents,  900  grains.  From  both  sacs  415  grains  of  pure 
casl;oreum  was  obtained,  but  the  whole  of  the  secretion  could  not 
be  removed. 

The  oil  sacs,  or  "preputial  glands"  (Cuvier),  are  connected 


DR.  W.  W.  ELY  S   NOTES  ON   CHAPTER   II. 


303 


cd 


with  the  caHtoreum  sacs,  and  aro  pyriforni  in  shape.  Kacii  has  a 
duet,  which  opens  within,  by  the  side  of  the  cloueal  oriiiee  at  it^f 
upper  margin,  surrounded  by  a  dark  areola.  On  evertinj?  the 
orifiee  of  the  duet,  it  a|)pear8  to  bo  a  eul-de-sao,  hiivinj^  tln'ie 
minute  orifices  at  its  bottom  Althoui^h  each  oil  sac  ai)i)ear;>  us 
one,  there  is,  in  addition  to  the  principal  ^land,two  smaller  ones, 
which  may  be  separated,  each  having^  its  communication  with  the 
tube  which  furnishes  the  outlet;  in  each  cavity  are  hairs  loose  or 
growing  from  its  surface,  and  the  «  ''er  eavitie.-^  are  sometimes 
filled  with  them.  The  walls  of  the  oil  sacs  are  much  thicker  than 
the  castoreum  sacs,  and  contain  many  follicles  of  considerable  size. 
The  cavities  contain  a  thick,  oily,  creamy  fluid.  From  the  larger 
cavity,  about  two  drachms  were  obtained,  having,  when  recent, 
a  faint  odor  of  castoreum.  This  secretion,  after  stan<ling  six 
months,  is  about  half  clear  oil,  and  the  remainder  a  whitish  sedi- 
ment. The  whole  is  soluble  in  ether,  except  a  small  residue  of 
epithelial  matter,  but  the  oil  is  sparingly  soluble  in  strong  alcohol. 
In  a  female  beaver,  Fig.  3,  the  castoreum  sacs  are  .'i^"  long,  and  3" 
broad.  The  oil  sacs  are  2^"  long.  The  amount  of  castoreum  in 
these  sacs  was  small  and  dark  colored. 

The  Rodents,  as  a  class,  are  very  prolific ;  this  is  true  of  the 
beaver.  Their  genital  organs  are  consequently  strongly  developed. 
The  statement  of  Cuvier,  however,  that  the  size  of  the  testicles 
in  the  Rodents  exceeds  ordinarily  that  of  the  kidneys,  is  not  true 
of  this  animal.  Viii.  104. 

In  Fig.  1,  the  form  of  the  penis  is  shown,  curved  and  retracted. 
When  extended  it  is  five  inches  long,  and  1|"  in  circumference. 
The  glaus  is  flattened,  1"  20"'  in  length,  and  covered  with  a 
rough  integument.  It  contains  a  bone  equal  to  its  length,  and 
largest  at  the  base.  The  transverse  communication  of  the  casto- 
reum sacs  is  behind  the  prepuce.  The  urethra  has  a  spongy  portion 
3^"  long,  and  a  membranous  one  2-i".  Cowper's  glands  lie  be- 
hind the  pubis.  The  prostate  glands  lie  by  the  side  of  the  ure- 
thra at  its  origin.  The  vesiculiB  seminales  are  united,  and  lie 
behind  the  neck  of  the  bladder,  each  being  I"  80"'  long,  90'" 
wide,  and  6C"'  thick.  It  is  possible  that  these  glands  were  hy- 
pertrophled,  as  their  cavities  contained  a  dense  fibrous  substance, 
a  portion  of  which  had  escaped  into  the  urethra,  distending  and 
obstructing  its  membranous  portion.  The  testicles  are  contained 
in  a  sac  projecting  from  the  inguinal  opening,  and  are  \\"  iu 
length. 


304 


APPENDICES. 


The  Welxjrian  organ,  or  the  uterus  raasculinusi,  is  well  devel- 
oped in  the  beaver.  It  is  triangular  in  shape,  i^attoned  and  thin 
antero-posteriorly,  and  is  connected  by  its  edges  with  the  vasa 
deiorentiee.  It  lies  between  the  bladder  and  the  vesiculae  semi- 
nales.  Below  it  Hoems  lost  in  the  thin  connective  tissue.  In  the 
upper  part,  where  it  is  1^"  in  width,  is  a  small  cavity  without 
any  outlet.  The  filaments  which  extend  from  the  superior  angles 
lie  upon  the  vasa  defereutiae,  and  disappear  at  the  bottom  of  the 
testicles,  being  6^"  in  length.  Tiie  significance  of  this  structure, 
so  interesting  to  the  philosophical  anatomist,  is  but  at  present  a 
matter  of  speculation.  Homologous  with  the  uterus,  the  vesi- 
cula  prostatica,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  like  the  mammaB  of  the 
male,  suggests  the  idea  of  typical  structures,  or  of  organs  of 
original  utility,  but  dwarfed  in  the  progress  of  development. 


Draton  by  W.  W.  Ely. 

In  Pig.  3,  the  genital  organs  of  the  female  arc  represented.  The 
parts  being  dissected  from  the!r  connections,  and  laid  on  a  flat 
surface  before  the  drawing  was  made,  their  natural  relations  are 
somewhat  altered.  The  oil  sacs  and  castoreum  sacs  are  discon- 
nected. ThiT  are  much  larger  than  the  other  specimen,  relatively 
to  the  size  of  the  animal.  The  cloaca  is  laid  open,  and  the  vaginal 
orifice  is  higher  than  in  the  natural  state  ;  this,  and  the  urethral 


DR.  W.  \Y.  KLYS    Nt>TES   ON    CllAI'TKK    II. 


305 


orifito,  would  Ijc  rotractod  and  concoahnl  l)y  tli«  nyinpliic,  which 
would  be  noarcr  tho  ('xtoruiil  orifico.  The  clitDris  is  siuall,  dim- 
pled, and  surrounded  with  a  prepuce,  and  the  nynipha;  are  thin, 
composed  of  a  memi)rane  similar  to  that  of  the  eastoreum  sacs, 
their  lateral  portions  extending  downward  in  the  directi()M  of  tho 
opening  of  the  oil  sacs  R.  Wagner  a.^serts  that  the  nyniphie 
are  wanting  in  tho  inferior  mammalia,  hut  Cuvier  .^ays  more 
correctly:  "Le  fait  est  que  les  nymphes  existent  ehez  plusieur:.4 
Rongeurs."  Viii.  256. 

The  orifice  of  the  urethra  is  half  an  inch  behind  the  clitoris. 
The  urethra  and  the  vagina  are  each  4"  long.  The  latter  is 
stiongly  muscular,  and  smooth  within.  The  bladder,  which  lies 
in  front  of,  and  conceals  the  uterus,  is  contracted,  thick,  and 
rugose.  Thj  position  of  the  ureters  is  seen  in  the  figure.  Tho 
uterus  is  1^"  long,  and  its  vaginal  extremity  is  lobulatcd.  It  is 
divided  into  two  cavities  by  a  (inn  se})tMP»,  each  cuvity  opening 
into  the  vagina  by  a  separate  orifice,  'fht  I'allopian  tubes  are 
9^"  long.  The  ovaries  are  small,  oval,  f  7'"  long,  32"'  in  width. 
It  is  probable,  though  I  cannot  affirm  it,  that  pregnancy  in  the 
beaver  is  Fallopian,  as  in  the  rat  and  the  rabbit. 

Castoreum. — The  difiference  in  the  eastoreum  as  furnished  by 
the  European  and  the  American  beavers  has  long  been  known 
to  chemists  and  physicians ;  the  Russian  castoreum  being  most 
esteemed  as  a  medicine.  The  fresh  specimens  of  American  cas- 
toreum which  I  have  seen,  diflfer  in  amount,  appearance,  and  con- 
sistence.   The  following  are  Brande's  analyses  of  this  substance  : 


CANADIAN    CASTOB. 

Volatile  oil 100 

Resin 13  86 

Castorin 0-38 

Albumen 0-05 

Osmazomo 0-20 

Carbonate  of  lime 33-62 

Other  salts 2-82 

Mucus 280 

Animal  matter  like  horn 2-30 

Membrane 2000 

Moisture  and  loss '?'L-8'i 


99-30 


BUSSIAN    CASTOR. 

Volatile  oil 2-0 

Resin 58-6 

Castorin 2-5 

Cholesterin 1-2 

Albumen 1-6 

Gelatin 10-4 

Osmazome 2-4 

Matter  soluble  in  alcohol 1-6 

Carbonate  of  lime 2-6 

Other  salts 2-4 

Membrane 3-0 

Moisture  and  loss 11-7 


1000 


il 


so 


306 


APPENDICES. 


Tim  European  eastoreum  in  supposed  to  contain  a  Iar;?(;r  propor- 
tion (if  tilt'  volatile!  oil,  oastorin,  and  resin,  ami  proi)al)Iy  its  supcrioi*- 
ity  as  u  niodicine  depends  up(jn  the  resinoid  element.  A  specimen 
of  eastoreum  which  I  obtained  from  a  male  American  beaver 
more  than  a  year  ago  waf  at  first,  of  a  light  yellow  color,  soft, 
and  very  adl'  've.  /  lie  ;  resent  tim';  the  col(»?  is  the  same  tx- 
copt  iieio  ii  :-  hii-,  a.K  !>  to  the  fill',  which  has  changed  the 
surface  to  a  <'ai's  Kv /?,  One  hundred  parts  of  this  eastoreum 
lost  (ifty-six  pan  loi  tu"  alcohol.     Of  the  residuum,  thirty- 

three  parts  dissolved  with  rvescenco  iu  diluted  hydrochloric 
acid,  affording  evidence  of  a  large  amount  of  carbonate  of  lime. 
The  remaining  eleven  parts  appeared  to  be  chiefly  animal  matter, 
but  it  was  not  critically  examined.  The  alcoholic  solution  on  cool- 
ing showed  no  trace  of  castorin.  Mixed  with  water  the  alcoholic 
solution  became  milky.  On  filtration  and  thorough  drying  of  the 
filter  there  resulted  41  parts  of  resin. 


\ 


APPENDIX   B. 

Samuel  Hearne^s  Article  on  /lie.  Heaver. 

From  Samuel  Hearne's  "Journey  from  Prince  of  Wales's  Fort  to  the 
'  Northern  Ocean."    London:  4to.,  1795,  ch.  vii.  p.  226. 

The  beaver  being  so  plentiful,  the  attention  of  my  companions 
was  chiefly  engaged  ol  them,  as  they  not  only  furnished  delicious 
food,  but  their  skins  proved  a  valuable  acquisition,  being  a  prin- 
cipal article  of  trade,  as  well  as  a  serviceable  one  for  clothing,  etc. 

The  situation  of  the  beaver  houses  is  various;  where  the  beavers 
are  numerous,  they  are  found  to  inhabit  lakes,  ponds,  and  rivers, 
as  well  as  those  naiTow  creeks  which  connect  the  numerous  lakes 
with  which  this  country  abounds ;  but  the  latter  are  generally 
chosen  by  them  where  the  depth  of  water  and  other  circumstances 
are  suitable,  as  they  have  then  the  advantage  of  a  current  to 
carry  wood  and  other  necessaries  to  their  habitations,  and  be- 
cause, in  general,  they  are  more  diflBcult  to  be  taken  than  those 
that  are  built  in  standing  water. 

There  is  no  one  particular  part  of  a  lake,  poud,  river,  or  creek, 


SAMDEi.   HEARNES   ARTICLE   ON   THE    HEAVKH.      30" 


rs 

3S 

ly 

es 
to 
»e- 

se 

ik, 


nf  wMch  tlu»  beaver  nmke  choiee  for  ImiMinir  their  lutiises  mm  in 
preference  to  anotlier;  for  Miey  sometimes  ItiiiM  on  iMtinls,  smue- 
tirne.  in  tlie  liollow  of  a  lojr.  and  often  on  suiull  isiatnls;  tlitv 
uKvuy.s  elioos( ,  li  wevor,  these  jiarts  that  have  such  a  depth  of 
wate'*  -IS  will  resist  the  frost  in  winter,  and  prevent  it  from  freez- 
ing to  th  •  hottoni. 

The  Ijeavcrs  that  buihl  their  houses  on  small  rivers  or  ereeks, 
in  which  the  water  is  lialiU;  to  he  drained  off  when  tlie  liack  sn|»- 
plies  are  (h'ied  up  hy  tiie  frost,  are  wonderluily  tanijiit  l»y  in-tinct 
to  pro'  '  'e  aijfninst  that  evil  l)y  makinjr  a  dam  (juite  n  'niss  the 
river,  ai  v:  convenient  distance  from  their  houses.  '''  's  'ook 
upon  as  the  most  curious  piece  of  workmanship  that  "s  per'  'led 
by  the  beaver;  not  so  much  for  the  neatness  of  th  •  >rk  .^  for 
its  strength  and  real  service;  and  at  the  same  t'  '{.  >.  --covers 
such  a  degree  of  sagacity  and  foresight  in  the  anin'a!  o,  ipp-oach- 
ing  evils,  as  is  little  inferior  to  that  of  the  human  species,  and  is 
certainly  peculiar  to  these  animals. 

The  beaver  dams  differ  in  shape  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  place  in  which  ^hey  arc  built.  If  the  water  in  the  river 
or  creek  has  but  little  motion,  the  dam  is  almost  straight; 
but  when  the  current  is  more  rapid,  it  is  always  made  with  a 
considerable  curve,  convex  toward  the  stream.  The  materials 
made  use  of  in  these  dams  are  drift-wood,  green  willows,  birch 
and  poplar,  if  they  can  be  got;  also  mud  and  stones,  intermixed 
in  such  a  manner  as  must  evidently  contribute  to  the  strength  of 
the  dam;  but  in  the.se  dams  there  is  no  other  order  or  methctl 
observed,  except  that  of  the  work  being  carried  on  with  regular 
success,  and  all  the  parts  being  made  of  equal  strength. 

In  places  which  have  been  long  frequented  by  beavers,  undis- 
turbed, their  dam,  by  frequent  repairing,  becomes  a  solid  bank, 
capable  of  resisting  a  great  force  both  uf  water  and  ice  ;  and  as 
the  willow,  poplar,  and  birch  generally  take  root  and  shoot  up, 
they,  by  oegrees,  form  a  kind  of  regular-planted  hedge,  which  I 
have  seen  in  some  places  so  tall,  that  birds  have  built  their  nests 
among  the  branches. 

Though  the  beaver  which  build  their  houses  in  lakes,  and 
other  standing  waters,  may  enjoy  a  sufficient  quantity  of  their 
favorite  element  without  the  assistance  of  a  dam,  the  trouble  of 
getting  wood  and  other  necessaries  to  their  habitation  without 
the  help  of  a  current,  must,  in  some  measure,  counterbalance  the 


I 


308 


APPENDICES. 


other  atlvuntui^t's  which  arc  n-apcd  from  HJich  a  sitiiiition  ;  for  it 
must  Im;  ubsurvcil  thiit  the  hcavffr  whicli  Imild  in  riv«!rH  un<l  creeks, 
ulwiiys  cut  their  wocmI  al)ove  their  houses,  ho  thut  the  current, 
with  little  trouble,  ooiiv(?ys  it  to  the  place  required. 

The  l)eaver  houses  are  built  of  the  same  materials  as  their 
dams,  and  arc  always  proportioned  in  size  to  the  number  of 
inhabitants,  which  seldom  exceed  four  old,  and  si.v  or  eipljt 
young  ones;  though,  by  chance,  I  have  seen  above  double  that 
number. 

These  houses,  though  not  altogether  unworthy  of  admiration, 
fall  v(!ry  short  of  the  generiil  diseription  given  of  them;  for  in- 
stead of  order  or  regulation  being  observcid  in  rearing  them,  they 
are  <tf  a  much  ruder  structure  than  their  dams. 

Those  who  have  undertaken  to  de-cribe  the  inside  of  beaver 
houses,  as  having  several  apartments  appropriated  to  various 
uses,  such  as  eating,  sleeping,  .store-houses  for  provisions,  and 
one  for  their  natural  occasions,  etc.,  mu,st  have  been  very  little 
acquainted  with  the  subject;  or,  which  is  still  worse,  guilty  of 
attempting  to  impose  on  the  credulous  by  repre.scuting  the  great- 
e-it  falsehoods  as  real  facts.  Many  years  constant  residence 
among  the  Indians,  during  which  I  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing 
several  hundreds  of  these  houses,  has  enabled  me  to  affirm  that 
everything  of  the  kind  is  entirely  void  of  truth ;  for  notwithstand- 
ing the  sagacity  of  these  animals,  it  has  never  been  observed  that 
they  aim  at  any  other  conveniences  in  their  houses  than  to  have 
a  dry  place  to  lie  on ;  and  there  they  usually  eat  their  victuals, 
which  they  occasionally  take  out  of  the  water. 

It  frequently  happens,  that  some  of  the  large  houses  are  found 
to  have  one  or  more  partitions,  if  they  deserve  that  appellation ; 
but  that  is  no  more  than  a  part  of  the  main  building,  left  by  the 
sagacity  of  the  beaver  to  support  the  roof.  On  such  occasions 
it  is  common  for  the.se  different  apartments,  as  some  are  pleased 
to  call  them,  to  have  no  communication  with  each  other  out  by 
water ;  so  that,  in  fact,  they  may  be  called  double  or  treble  houses, 
rather  than  different  apartments  of  the  same  house.  I  have  seen 
a  large  beaver  house  built  in  a  small  islr.nd,  that  had  near  a  dozen 
houses  under  one  roof;  and,  two  or  three  of  these  only  excepted, 
none  of  them  had  any  communication  with  each  other  but  by 
water.  As  there  were  beavers  enough  to  inhabit  each  apartment, 
it  is  more  than  probable  that  each  family  knew  its  own,  and 


SAMUEL   IlEARNES   ARTICLE  ON   THE    UKAVKR.       ".<>!) 


iilwiivd  enttTod  at  tlirir  t)\vn  door  without  having  any  fmilnr 
nmiiuctioit  with  their  iifi^hlxtrM  tliun  a  friendly  ii:t<<rroiirsi>;  uml 
to  join  their  united  l;il»or,s  in  ereetini^  their  separate  iiahilalions, 
und  building  llit-ir  dams  when  required.  It  is  dillieult  to  say 
whether  their  inleresi  on  other  occasions  was  any  way  reeipr  >- 
eal.  Tiie  Indians  of  my  |iariy  killed  twelve  old  leavers,  and 
twenty-fivo  young  and  half-grown  ones,  out  of  the  houses  ahovc 
mentiuniid ;  and  on  exantiuation  found  that  several  had  escaped 
tiieir  vigi'aneo,  and  eould  not  lie  taken  hut  at  the  expense  of 
ittoro  trouble  than  would  l)e  autlicleul  to  tuko  double  the  number 
in  a  lesis  ditrieult  nituation.' 

Travellers  who  assert  that  the  beaver  have  had  doors  *■>  their 
houses,  one  on  the  land  side,  and  the  other  next  th(»  water,  seem 
to  be  less  a(!t)uainted  with  these  animals  than  others  who  assign 
them  an  elegant  suite  of  apartments.  Sueh  a  proceeding  wotdd 
be  quite  contrary  to  their  manner  of  life,  and  at  the  sam((  time 
would  render  their  houses  of  no  use  either  to  proleet  them  from 
their  onoiuicd,  or  guard  them  against  the  extreme  of  cold  in 
winter. 

The  quiquehatches  or  wolvoreens,  are  great  enemies  to  the 
beaver;  and  if  there  were  a  ])a.s.sage  into  their  houses  on  the  land 
side,  would  not  leave  one  of  them  alive  w'.ierever  they  came. 

.1  cannot  refrain  from  smiling  when  I  read  the  accoiuits  of  dif- 
ferent authors  who  have  written  on  the  economy  of  tiie.se  uni- 
mals,  as  there  seems  to  be  a  contest  between  them  who  shall 
mostexceed  in  Qction.  Buttho  compiler  of  the  "  Wondcrsof  Nature 
and  Art"  seems,  in  my  opinion,  to  have  rtucceeded  le.-s  in  this  re- 
spect; as  ho  has  not  only  collected  all  the  fictions  into  which 
other  writers  on  the  subject  have  run,  but  has  so  greatly  im- 
proved on  them,  that  little  remains  to  be  added  to  his  account  of 
the  beaver  besides  a  vocabulary  of  their  language,  a  code  of  their 
laws,  and  a  sketch  of  their  religion,  to  make  it  the  most  complete 
natural  history  of  that  animal  which  can  possibly  be  offered  to 
the  public. 

There  cannot  be  a  greater  imposition,  or  indeed  a  gro.sser  insult 
on  common  understanding,  than  the  wish  to  make  us  believe  the 

1  The  ditliculty  here  alluded  to  was  the  nuiuberless  vaults  the  beaver  bad 
in  the  sides  of  the  pond,  uud  the  immeasu  tiiickuess  ot  the  house  iu  some 
parts. 


I' III 
I  I 


:}l() 


AITKN  DICKS. 


HtoricH  (if  soiiir  of  I  lie  workn  iiscriltcd  tti  the  Ih'iiv<t;  iiimI  llioiij^Ii 
it  Ih  not  to  1m!  Hii|)piMi'(l  tliiit  tiir  n)iii|»ilfi'  nl'  ti  p-ticriil  work  can 
I)*'  iiiiiiiiiitrly  a<-(|iiaiiit*-i|  with  t-vtry  siilijrct  of  wliicli  it  ^uay  Ite 
n(!(M's-ary  to  tnat,  ><'t  a  very  iiMxIn-atc  hliuiv  oC  uinifrslaiKliiif?  \h 
Burcly  siiilirit'iit  to  ^iiai'd  liiiii  uptiiiHt  ^-iviti^  credit  t.i  Mirli  inar- 
vflloiis  talrM,  however  Hiiioothly  tliey  may  l)o  told,  or  however 
l)oldly  tlicy  may  l»e  asserted  by  the  romancing  traveller. 

To  deny  that  the  l)eav(!r  is  possessed  of  a  very  eonsidenil>iede- 
gree  of  saffaeity  would  lie  as  alisuid  in  me  as  it  is  in  tliese  authors 
\vho  tiiitdi  they  cannot  alhtw  them  too  mueii.  i  shall  willingly 
grant  them  their  full  share:  but  it  is  impossible  for  any  one  to 
conceive  how,  or  by  wiuit  means,  a  Iicttvcr  whose  full  height  when 
standing  eriM-t,  doi-s  not  exceed  two  feet  and  a  half,  or  three  feet 
at  most,  and  whose  fore  paws  are  not  much  larger  tlian  a  lialf- 
crown  piece,  can  "drive  stakes  as  thiclt  as  u  man's  leg  into  the 
ground  tiiree  or  four  feet  deep."  Tlieir  "wattling  tiiese  stakes  * 
with  twigs,"  is  e(|ually  absiu'd  ;  and  tlieir  "plastering  the  inside 
of  tlieir  ln)uses  with  a  comi>osition  of  mud  and  straw,  and  swim- 
ming with  mud  and  stones  on  their  tails,"  are  still  more  incredible. 
The  form  and  size  of  the  animal,  notwithstanding  all  its  sagacity, 
will  not  admit  of  its  performing  such  feats;  and  it  would  bo  as 
impossible  for  a  beaver  to  use  its  tail  as  a  trowel,  except  on  tlie 
surface  of  the  ground  on  which  it  walks,  as  it  would  have  been 
for  Sir  James  Thornhill  to  have  painted  the  dome  of  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral  without  the  assistance  of  scaffolding.  The  joints  of 
their  tail  will  not  admit  of  their  turning-  it  over  their  tracks  on 
any  occasion  whatever,  as  it  has  a  natural  inclination  to  bend 
downwards;  and  it  is  not  without  some  considerable  exertion 
that  they  can  keep  it  from  trailing  on  the  ground.  This  being 
the  case,  they  cannot  .sit  erect  like  a  squirrel,  which  is  their  com- 
mon posture,  particularly  when  eating,  or  when  they  are  clean- 
ing themselves,  as  a  cat  or  squirrel  does,  without  having  their 
tails  l)ont  forward  between  their  legs;  and  which  may  not  im- 
properly be  called  their  trencher. 

So  far  are  the  beaver  from  driving  stakes  into  the  ground  when 
building  their  houses,  that  they  lay  most  of  the  wood  crosswise, 
and  nearly  horizontal,  and  without  any  other  order  than  that  of 
leaving  a  hollow  or  cavity  in  the  middle ;  when  any  unnecessary 
branches  project  inward,  they  cut  them  off  with  their  teeth,  and 
throw  them  in  among  the  rest  to  prevent  the  mud  from  falling 


SAMIIKL   HEAHNKS    AKTICLK   O.V   TlIK    IlKAVKU.      -Ul 


tliroiitrli  tlic  roof.  It  w  a  niir^tiik)'))  notiDri  that  thu  woodwork  is 
flwt  com|>h'(i;<l  mill  tlii'ii  i»last«'riMl ;  for  \\w  whole  of  their  lioiiMes, 
as  well  us  their  (hiiiis,  are  frutii  the  foiitiiliitioii  one  muss  of  wouil 
uixi  iniid  iiiixetl  with  stones,  if  they  euii  l)e  proeiiretl.  'I'hr  mud 
is  always  taken  from  th«)  ed^e  of  the  Itank,  or  the  Itottom  of  the 
creek  or  pond,  near  the  (hior  of  the  house  ;  and  thoiiirli  their  fore 
paws  are  so  small,  yet  it  is  held  elosc  up  hetween  tiiem  under 
their  thntat.  that  they  carry  both  mud  and  stones;  while  they 
always  dra;;  the  wood  with  their  teeth. 

All  their  work  is  executed  in  the  nig^ht,  and  they  arc  so  yxpo- 
ditious  in  coniphttin^  it  that  in  thu  course  of  one  nij^'iit  i  have 
known  them  to  have  CDJIeclcd  as  mueli  mud  at  their  houses  as  to 
have  amounted  to  some  thousands  of  tiieir  little  hanilfuls;  and 
when  any  mixture  of  jrrass  or  straw  has  appeari'd  in  it,  it  has 
been  most  assuredly  min'c  uhanee,  owinf?  to  the  nature  of  the 
ground  from  which  they  had  tak(ui  it.  As  to  their  desiijnedly 
makin^j^  a  composition  for  that  purpos((  it  is  entirely  void  of  truth. 

It  is  a  great  piece  of  policy  in  those  aiiimals  to  cover,  or  |»last<'r, 
as  it  Is  usually  called,  tlio  outside  of  their  houses  cfvery  fall  with 
fresh  mud,  and  as  late  us  possible  in  the  autumn,  even  when  th(i 
frost  becomes  pretty  severe;  as  by  this  means  it  soon  freezes  as 
hard  as  a  stone,  and  prevents  their  common  enemy,  the  (iui(pii- 
hatch,  from  disturbing  thera  during  the  winter.  And  us  they  are 
frequently  seen  to  walk  over  their  work,  and  sometimes  to  give  a 
flap  with  their  tail,  particularly  when  plunuring  into  the  water, 
this  has,  without  doubt,  given  rise  to  the  vulgar  opinion  that  they 
use  their  tails  as  a  trowel,  with  which  they  plaster  their  houses; 
whereas  that  flapping  of  the  tail  is  no  more  than  a  custom,  wliich 
they  always  preserve,  even  when  they  become  tame  and  domes- 
tic, and  more  particularly  s^  when  they  are  startled. 

Ti  ir  food  chiefly  consists  of  a  large  root,  something  resembling 
a  cabb  Jire  stalk,  which  grows  at  the  bottom  of  the  lakes  and  rivers. 
They  eat  also  the  bark  of  trees,  particularly  that  of  the  poplar, 
birch,  ana  willow;  but  the  ice  preventing  them  from  getting  to 
the  land  in  winter,  they  have  not  any  barks  to  feed  upon  during 
that  season,  except  that  of  such  sticks  as  they  cut  down  in  sum- 
mer and  throw  into  the  water  opposite  the  doorsof  their  houses; 
and  as  they  generally  eat  a  great  deal,  the  roots  above  laen- 
tioned  constitute  the  chief  part  of  their  food  during  the  ninter. 
In  summer  they  vary  their  diet  by  eating  various  kinds  of  herb- 


.'  H 


it- 1 


312 


APPENDICES. 


age,  and  such  berries  as  grow  near  their  haunts  during  that 
season. 

When  the  ice  breaks  up  in  the  spring,  the  beaver  always  leave 
their  houses,  and  rove  about  the  whole  summer,  probably  in  search 
of  a  more  commodious  situation ;  but  in  case  of  not  succeeding 
in  their  endeavors,  they  return  again  to  their  old  habitations  a 
little  bufore  the  fall  of  the  leaf,,  and  lay  in  their  winter  stock  of 
woods.  They  seldom  begin  to  repair  the  houses  till  the  frost 
commences,  and  never  finish  the  outer  coat  till  the  cold  is  pretty 
severe,  as  has  boon  already  mentioned. 

When  they  shift  their  habitations,  or  when  the  increase  of  their 
number  render  it  necessary  to  make  some  addition  to  their  houses, 
or  to  erect  new  ones,  they  begin  felling  the  wood  for  these  pur- 
poses early  in  the  summer,  but  seldom  begin  to  build  till  the  mid- 
dle or  latter  end  of  August,  and  never  complete  their  houses  till 
the  cold  weather  be  set  in. 

Notwithstanding  what  has  been  so  repeatedly  reported  of  these 
animals  asr'jmbling  in  great  bodies,  and  jointly  erecting  large 
towns,  cities,  and  commonwealths,  as  they  have  sometimes  been 
called,  I  am  confident  from  many  circumstances,  that  even  where 
the  greatest  number  of  beaver  are  situated  in  the  neighborhood 
of  each  other,  their  labors  are  not  carried  on  jointly  in  the  erec- 
tion of  their  dilforent  habitations,  nor  have  they  any  reciprocal 
interest  except  it  be  such  as  live  immediately  under  the  same 
roof;  and  then  it  extends  no  further  than  to  build  or  keep  a  dam 
which  is  common  to  several  houses.  In  such  cases  it  is  natural 
to  think  that  every  one  who  seemed  benefited  from  such  a  dam, 
should  nbsist  in  erecting  it,  being  s^ensible  of  its  utility  to  all. 

Person.s  who  attempt  to  take  beaver  in  winter  should  be  thor- 
oughly ae(iuainted  with  their  manner  of  life  ;  otherwise  they  will 
have  endless  trouble  to  elfect  their  purpose,  and  probably  with- 
out success  in  the  end ;  because  they  always  have  a  number  of 
holes  in  the  banks  which  serve  them  as  places  of  retreat  when 
any  injuiy  is  ottered  to  their  houses,  and  in  general  it  is  in  these 
holes  that  they  are  taken. 

When  the  beaver  which  are  situated  in  a  small  river  or  creek 
are  to  be  taken,  the  Indians  sometimes  find  it  necessary  to  stake 
the  river  across,  to  prevent  them  from  passing;  after  which  they 
endeavor  to  find  out  all  their  holes  or  places  of  retreat  in  the 
banks.     This  requires  much  practice  and  experience  to  accom< 


liilUllllMiWiKiliai*! 


SAMUEL   HEARNES   ARTICLE   ON   THE   BEAVER. 


13 


plish.anfl  is  performed  in  the  following  manner:  every  man  being 
furnished  with  an  ice  chisel,  lashes  it  to  the  end  of  a  small  staft", 
about  four  or  five  feet  long;  he  then  walks  along  the  edge  of  the 
banks,  and  keeps  knocking  his  chisel  against  the  ice.  Those 
who  are  acquainted  with  that  kind  of  work  will  know  by  the 
sound  of  the  ice  when  they  are  opposite  to  any  of  the  beaver 
holes  or  vaults.  As  soon  as  they  suspect  any,  they  cut  a  hole 
through  the  ice  big  enough  to  admit  an  old  beaver,  and  in  this 
manner  proceed  until  they  have  found  out  all  their  placed  of  re- 
treat, or  at  least  as  many  of  them  as  possible.  While  the  prin- 
cipal men  are  thus  employed,  some  of  the  understrappers  and  the 
women  are  busy  in  breaking  open  the  house,  which  at  times  is 
no  easv  task ;  for  I  have  frequently  known  these  houses  to  be  five 
and  six  feet  thick,  and  one  in  particular  was  more  than  eight  feet 
thick  on  the  crown.  When  the  beaver  find  that  their  habitations 
are  invaded,  they  fly  to  their  holes  in  the  banks  for  shelter ;  and 
on  being  perceived  by  the  Indians,  which  is  easily  done  by  at- 
tending to  the  motion  of  the  water,  they  block  up  the  entrance 
with  stakes  of  wood,  and  then  haul  the  beaver  out  of  his  hole 
either  by  hand  if  they  can  reach  it,  or  with  a  large  hook  made 
for  that  purpose,  which  is  fastened  to  the  end  of  a  long  stick. 

In  this  kind  of  hunting  every  man  has  the  eole  right  to  all  the 
beaver  caught  by  him  in  the  holes  or  vaults;  and  as  this  is  a  con- 
stant rule,  each  person  takes  care  to  mark  such  as  he  discovers, 
by  sticking  up  the  branch  of  a  tree  or  some  other  distinguishing 
post  by  which  he  may  know  them.  All  that  are  caught  in  the 
house  also  are  the  property  of  the  person  who  findsjt. 

The  same  regulations  are  observed,  and  the  same  process  used 
in  taking  beaver  that  are  found  in  lakes  and  other  standing  waters, 
except  it  be  that  of  staking  the  lakes  across,  which  would  be  both 
unnecessary  and  impossible.  Taking  beaver  houses  in  these  situ- 
ations is  generally  attended  with  less  trouble  and  more  success 
than  in  the  former. 

The  beaver  is  an  animal  which  cannot  keep  under  water  long 
at  a  time,  so  that  when  their  houses  are  broken  open,  and  all  their 
plHce*  of  retreat  discovered,  they  have  but  one  chcice  left,  as  it 
Dn'  '  called,  cither  to  be  taken  in  their  houses  or  their  vaults; 
in  general  they  prefer  the  latter,  for  whore  there  is  one  beaver 
caught  in  the  house,  many  thu'isands  are  taken  in  their  vaults  in 
the  oanks.     Sometimes  they  are  caught  in  nets,  and  in  the  sum- 


f.  i  f' : 

•til 


314 


APPENDICES. 


mer  very  frequently  in  traps.  In  winter  they  are  very  fat  and 
delicious;  but  the  trouble  of  rearing*  their  youBg,  the  thinness 
of  their  hair,  and  their  constantly  roving  from  place  to  place, 
with  the  trouble  they  have  in  providing  against  the  ap,)roach  of 
winter,  generally  keep  tlieiu  very  poor  during  the  Summer  season, 
at  which  time  their  flesh  is  but  indifferent  eating,  and  their  skins 
of  so  little  value  that  the  Indiaus  generally  singe  them,  even  to 
the  amount  of  many  thousands  in  one  summer.  They  have  from 
two  to  five  young  at  a  time.  Mr.  Dobbs,  iu  his  account  of  Hud- 
son's Bay,  enumerates  no  less  than  eight  different  kinds  of  beaver ; 
but  it  must  be  understood  that  they  are  all  of  one  kind  and  species ; 
his  distinctions  arise  wholly  from  the  different  seasons  of  the 
year  in  which  they  are  killed,  and  the  different  uses  to  which 
their  skins  are  applied,  which  is  the  sole  reason  that  they  vary 

so  much  in  value. 

******* 

Lefranc,  as  an  Indian,  must  have  known  better  than  to  have 
informed  Mr.  Dobbs  that  the  beaver  have  from  ten  to  fifteen 
young  nt  a  tiiue;  or  if  ho  did  he  must  have  deceived  him  willfully, 
for  the  Indians,  by  killing  them  in  all  stages  of  gestation,  have 
abundant  opportunities  of  ascertaining  the  usual  number  of  their 
offspring.  I  have  seen  .some  hundreds  of  them  killed  at  the 
season  favorable  for  these  observations,  and  never  could  discover 
more  than  six  young  in  one  female,  and  that  only  in  two  in- 
stances, for  the  usual  number,  as  I  have  before  observed,  is  from 
two  to  five. 

Besides  this  unerring  method  of  ascertaining  the  real  number 
of  young  which  any  animal  has  at  a  time,  there  is  another  rule 
to  go  by  with  respect  to  the  beaver,  which  experience  has  proved 
to  the  Indian  never  to  vary  or  deceive  them,  that  is  by  dissection; 
for  on  examining  the  womb  of  a  beaver,  even  at  a  time  when  not 
with  young,  there  is  always  found  a  hardish  round  for  every 
young  she  had  at  the  last  litter.  This  is  a  circumstance  I  nave 
been  particularly  careful  to  examine,  and  can  affirm  it  to  be  true 
from  real  experience. 

Most  of  the  accounts,  nay  I  may  say  all  the  accounts  now  ex- 
tant respecting  the  beaver,  are  taken  from  the  authority  of  the 
French,  who  have  resided  in  Canada ;  but  their  accounts  differ 
so  much  from  the  real  state  and  economy  of  all  the  beaver  to  the 
north  of  that  place,  as  to  leave  great  rou^n  to  suspect  the  truth  of 


SAMUEL  HEARNE'S  ARTICLE  ON  THE  BEAVER.   315 


iheni  altogether.  In  the  first  place,  the  assertion  that  they  have 
two  doors  to  their  houses,  one  on  the  land  side  and  the  other 
next  the  water,  is  as  I  have  bi'fore  ol)served,  (juite  contrary  to 
fact  and  eonituon  sense,  as  it  would  render  their  liouses  of  no  use 
to  them,  either  as  places  of  shelter  from  the  inclemency  of  the 
extreme  cold  in  winter,  or  as  a  retreat  from  their  common  enemy 
the  quiquehatch.  The  only  thing  that  could  have  made  M.  Du 
Pratz,  and  other  French  writers,  (-oiijeclure  that  such  a  thing  did 
exist,  must  have  been  from  having  seen  some  old  beaver  houses, 
which  had  been  taken  by  the  Indians;  for  they  are  always  obliged 
to  make  a  hole  on  one  side  of  the  house  before  they  can  drive 
them  out;  and  it  is  more  than  probable  that  in  so  mild  a  climate 
as  Canada  the  Indians  do  generally  make  these  holes  on  the  land 
side,  which  witliout  doubt  gave  rise  to  the  suggestion. 

In  respect  to  the  beaver  dunging  in  their  houses,  as  some  per- 
sons assert,  it  is  quite  wrong,  as  they  always  plunge  into  the 
water  to  do  it.  I  am  the  better  enabled  to  make  the  assertion 
from  having  kept  several  of  tluim  till  they  I)ecame  so  domesti- 
cated as  to  answer  to  their  name,  and  follow  those  to  whom  the}' 
were  accustomed,  in  the  same  manner  as  a  dog  wo'ild  do;  and 
they  were  as  much  pleased  at  being  fondled  as  any  animal  I  ever 
saw;  I  had  a  house  built  for  thorn,  and  a  small  piece  of  water  be- 
fore the  door,  into  which  they  alway.s  plunged  when  they  wanted 
to  ease  nature ;  and  their  dung  being  of  a  light  substance,  imme- 
diately rises  and  floats  on  the  surface,  t!\  ;n  separates,  and  sub- 
sides to  the  bottom.  When  the  winter  sets  in  so  as  to  fr(  eze  the 
water  solid,  they  still  continue  their  custom  of  coming  out  of 
their  houses  and  dunging  and  making  water  on  the  ice;  and  when 
the  weather  was  so  cold  that  I  was  obliged  to  Ifaketheiti  into  my 
house,  they  always  went  into  a  large  tub  of  water  whicii  I  set  for 
that  purpose,  so  that  they  made  not  the  least  dirt,  though  they 
are  kept  in  my  own  sitting  room,  where  they  were  the  constant 
companions  ot'  the  Indian  women  and  children,  and  were  so  fond 
of  their  company,  that  when  tho  Indians  were  absent  for  any 
considerable  time,  the  beaver  discovered  great  signs  of  uneasi- 
ness, and  on  their  return  showed  equal  marks  of  pleasure,  by 
fondUag  on  them,  crawling  into  their  laps,  laying  on  their  backs, 
sitting  erect  like  a  squirrel,  and  behaving  to  them  like  children 
who  see  their  parents  but  seldom.  In  general  during  the  winter 
thev  lived  on  the  same  food  as  the  women  did,  and  were  remark- 


\M 


316 


APPENDICES. 


m 


ably  fond  of  rice  and  plumb-pudding;  they  could  eat  partridges 
and  fresh  venison  very  freely,  but  I  never  tried  thera  with  fish, 
though  I  have  heard  they  will  at  times  prey  on  them.  In  fact 
there  are  few  of  the  graminivorous  that  may  not  be  brought  to  be 
carnivorous.  It  is  well  known  that  our  domestic  poultry  will  eat 
animal  food ;  thousands  of  gocso  that  come  to  London  market 
are  fattened  on  tallow  scraps ;  and  our  horses  in  Hudson's  Bay 
would  not  only  eat  all  kinds  of  animal  food,  but  also  drink  freely 
of  the  wash  or  pot  liquor  intended  for  the  hogs.  And  we  are  as- 
sured by  tho  most  authentic  author,  that  in  Iceland,  not  only  black 
cattle,  but  also  the  sheep,  are  almost  entirely  fed  on  fish  and  fish- 
bones during  the  winter  season.  Even  in  the  Isles  of  Orkney, 
and  that  in  .'^.ummer,  the  sheep  attend  the  ebbing  of  the  tide  as 
regular  as  the  Esquimaux  curlew,  and  go  down  to  the  shore  which 
the  tide  has  left  to  feed  on  the  sea- weed.  This  however  is  through 
necessity ;  for  even  the  famous  Island  of  Pomona  will  not  afford 
them  an  existence  above  high  water  mark. 

With  respect  to  the  inferior  or  slave  beaver,  of  which  some 
authors  speak,  it  is  in  my  opinion  very  difficult  for  those  who 
are  best  acquainted  with  the  economy  of  this  animal,  whether  there 
are  any  that  deserve  that  appellation.  It  sometimes  happens 
that  a  beaver  is  caught  which  has  but  a  very  indifferent  coat,  and 
which  has  broad  patches  on  the  back  and  shoulders,  almost 
wholly  without  hair.  This  is  the  only  foundation  for  asserting 
that  there  is  an  inferior  or  slave  beaver  among  them.  And  when 
one  of  the  above  description  is  taken,  it  is  perhaps  too  hastily 
inferred,  that  the  hair  is  worn  off  from  theso  parts  by  carrying 
heavy  loads ;  whereas  it  is  most  probable  that  it  is  caused  by  a 
disorder  that  attacks  them  somewhat  similar  to  the  mange,  for 
were  that  falling  off  of  the  hair  occasioned  by  performing  extra 
labor,  it  is  natural  to  think  that  instances  of  it  would  be  more 
frequent  than  there  are;  as  it  is  rare  to  see  one  oi'  them  in  the 
course  of  seven  or  ten  years.  I  have  .seen  a  whole  house  of  these 
animals  that  had  nothing  on  the  surface  of  their  bodies  but  the 
fine  soft  down,  all  the  long  hairs  having  molted  off.  Th  s  and 
e'">ry  other  deviation  from  the  general  ruxi  is  undoubtedly  owing 
to  some  particular  disorder. 


BENNETTS   ARTICLE   ON    THE   BEAVER. 


317 


ling 

|y  * 

for 
:tra 
lore 
the 
lese 

the 
land 

ing 


APPENDIX    C. 

Bennett's  Article  on  the  Beaver. 

From  "The  Gardens  and  Menagerie  of  the  Znolofiical  Society  Delineated." 
Quadrupeds,     Vol.  i.  p.  153.     Published  in  1835. 

THE  BE.WER. 

{Castor  Fiber,  Linn.) 

Among  the  numerous,  widely  dispersed,  and  prolific  tribes  of 
animals  which  compose  the  extremely  natural  order,  called  by 
LinnsBUS  and  the  writers  of  his  school  Glires,  there  are  none 
perhaps  which  possess  so  many  claims  on  our  attention  as  the 
well-marked  and  circumscribed  little  group  on  the  history  of 
which  we  are  about  to  enter.  The  beavers,  in  fact,  interest  us 
not  only  as  furnishing  a  most  valuable  fur,  and  producing  a  pe- 
culiar secretion  occasionally  and  advantageously  eraplo}cd  in 
medicine,  but  also  as  ofiFering  the  most  remarkable  of  the  few  in- 
stances occurring  among  quadrupeds  of  that  architectural  instinct, 
so  remarkably  prevalent  in  the  inferior  classes,  which  impels  them 
to  construct  their  own  habitations  with  materials  selected  fo'*  the 
purpose,  brought  from  a  distance,  and  cemented  together  so  a.-  to 
form  a  regular  and  uniform  structure. 

The  first  and  most  essential  character  of  the  order  to  hich 
they  belong  is  obviously  derived  from  the  great  develop  it  of 
their  incisor  teeth ;  and  this  peculiarity  in  structure,  w  light 
naturally  be  expected,  is  connected  with  a  peculiarity  i.)  iiabits 
eijually  remarkable.  So  striking,  indeed,  is  the  prop-  -ity  to 
gnawing,  which  distinguishes  these  animals,  that  many  '  zoolo- 
gists, of  the  French  school  especially,  have  thrown  asi  le  older 
designation  applied  to  them  by  Linnaeus,  and  ado  {ted  n  its  place 
the  expressive  name  of  Rongeurs  or  Rodentia.  Of  this  faculty 
the  beavers  appear  to  exhibit  the  highest  degree  o'  devel- 
opment;  their  powerful  incisor  teeth  not  only  serving  ihem  to 
strip  otT  and  divide  the  bark  of  trees,  which  forms  their  principal 
nutriment,  but  also  enabling  them,  when  urged  by  their  instinct 
of  construction,  to  gnaw  through  trunks  of  considera'ij'  thick- 
ness, and  thus  to  obtain  tho  timber  of  which  they  stand  in  need 


}  • 


1 II 


318 


APPENDICES. 


for  the  building  of  their  iiabitations.  These  important  organs 
contribute,  tiierefore,  in  an  especial  manner,  to  supply  them  both 
with  food  and  shelter. 

The  incisor  teeth  of  the  beavers  are  two  in  number  in  each 
jaw ;  they  are  broad,  flat,  and  generally  colored  of  a  deep  orange 
or  almost  chestnut  brown  anteriorly,  and  pass  into  acute  angles 
on  their  posterior  surface.  Their  extremities  terminate  externally 
in  a  cutting  edge,  and  shelve  considerably  inward  ;  for  the  ante- 
rior surface  being  alone  coated  with  enamel,  and  consequently 
offering  the  greatest  resistance,  is  less  easily  worn  down  by  the 
action  to  which  tb(!y  are  exposed.  Those  of  either  jaw  cor- 
respond exactly  w  ih  their  oppo.-^ites,  and  the  form  of  the  articu- 
lation of  the  lower  jaw  admitting  of  little  or  no  lateral  motion, 
their  action  is  always  from  behind  forward  and  vicevevHa.  They 
have  no  true  voo  s,  but  are  of  equal  thickness  throughout,  and 
are  implanted  with'n  the  jaw  in  sacs  or  capsules,  which  repro- 
duce them  from  the  base  as  fasi  as  tiiey  are  worn  down  at  the 
extremity.  So  strong  a.  tendency  have  iliey  to  increase  by  this 
process,  that  whenever  one  of  the  incisors  of  either  jaw  has  been 
accident)  )!y  injvu'cd  or  .iestroyed,  the  opposite  tooth,  meeting 
with  no  resistance  from  its  antagonist,  is  propelled  forward  by  a 
continual  enlargeuieni  from  the  base  to  such  an  extent  as  to  be- 
come at  length  perfectly  monstrous.  This  mode  of  growth  is 
common  to  the  whole  order,  and  the  number  of  the  incisor  teeth 
is  also  tiie  sr.i.ie  in  all  the  groups  that  compose  it,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  family  of  which  the  hare  forms  the  type. 

The  entire  absence  of  canine  teeth,  leaving  a  vacant  space  of 
some  extent  between  the  incisors  and  the  molars,  is  another  char- 
acter which  the  beavers  have  in  common  with  ail  the  Rodent  an- 
imals ;  but  the  structure  of  their  molar  teeth  differs  from  that  of 
any  other  group.  These  latter  organs  furnish  indeed  the  best 
characters  that  have  yet  been  employed  for  the  separation  of  the 
Rongeurs  into  distinct  and  natural  genera.  In  the  beavers  they 
are  four  on  each  side  in  either  jaw,  and  their  crowns  present  a 
flattened  surface  on  which  the  lines  of  enamel  are  so  disposed 
as  to  form  three  folds  on  the  outer  side  and  one  on  the  inner  in 
those  of  the  upper  jaw,  while  those  of  the  lower  offer  an  arrange- 
ment directly  the  reverse.  They  were  formerly  suspected  by  M. 
F.  Cuvier,  who  has  paid  particular  attention  to  the  teeth  of  the 
mammiferous  quadrupeds,  to  be  destitute  of  proper  roots,  and  to 


BENNETTS   ARTICLE   ON    THE    BEAVER. 


319 


iiicreaso  from  their  l)Uf>c  in  tlie  samo  niiuuu'r  us  tiic  incisors;  hut 
he  lias  since  candidly  cunt'essed  tijo  err(»i'  into  which  lie  hatl  been 
led  by  the  inspection  of  a  cranium  in  \vlii<'h  they  were  not  yet 
fully  developed,  and  he  now  admits  liiat  in  the  adult  animal  they 
are  furnished  with  true  roots,  and  are  euiiseijuently  incapultle  of 
receiving  any  addition  to  their  grov/th  when  once  completely 
formed.  Their  flattened  crowns  sullii-itmtly  indicate  that  the 
food  which  they  are  intended  to  masticate  is  entirely  vegetable. 

In  the  regularity  of  their  line  of  prolile  from  the  back  (jf  the 
head  to  the  extremity  of  the  nose,  the  lateral  position  of  their 
diminutive  eyes,  the  depth,  oblicjuity,  and  obtuseiiess  of  their 
muscle,  the  vertical  fissure  of  their  ujiper  lip,  the  softness  and 
closeness  of  their  fur,  and  the  greater  length  and  muscularity  of 
tiieir  posterior  limbs,  the  beavers  may  be  regarded  as  almost 
typical  of  the  order  to  which  thej  belong.  They  e.\hil)it,  how- 
ever, in  their  external  form  several  .striking  modifications  peculiar 
to  themselves.  Of  these,  the  most  remarkable  consi.sts  in  their 
tail,  which  differs  in  structure  from  that  of  <!V(  y  ctl.or  (luadruped. 
This  organ,  which  is  nearly  half  as  long  as  x,  >■  j(;({y,  is  broadly 
dilated,  oval,  flattened  both  above  and  below,  covered  at  its 
thickened  base  alone  with  hair  similar  to  that  which  invests  the 
rest  of  the  animal,  but  overlaid  throughout  the  greater  part  of 
its  extent  with  a  peculiar  incrustation  wh'ch  assumes  the  form  <»f 
regular  scales  closely  resembling  those  of  fishes.  The  feet  all 
terminate  in  five  toes,  those  of  the  anterior  extremities  smaller 
and  shorter  than  those  of  the  posterior,  and  divided  almost  to  the 
base,  while  the  latter  are  united  to  their  very  tips  by  the  inter- 
vention of  a  strong  duplicature  of  the  skin,  which  allows  of  their 
separation  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  forms  a  broad  and  i)al- 
mate<l  expansion,  similar  in  form  and  s*  rvng  for  the  same  useful 
purjwse  wii;b  the  webbed  feet  of  the  swimming  birds.  The  nails 
are  thick  aaad  strong:  and  that  of  tbi-  (Second  toe  of  the  hinder 
feet  is  remaeiay*'  for  !»<•  iig  formed  of  two  portions,  an  npfjcr  one 
correspond i«?r  wieh  th  -*»  of  the  remaining  tues,  and  an  under, 
placed  obliqu«iy,  and  iwving  a. sharp  cutting-edge  directed  down- 
ward. 

The  gait  of  the  bea'^'Ts  is  waddling  and  ungraceful,  owing 
pai'tly  to  the  shortness  and  inecpiality  of  tlicir  limb^.  and  partly 
to  the  outward  direction  whicli  is  given  to  their  heels  to  enable 
their  feet  more  efficieatly  to  fulfill  the  office  of  paddles  in  swim- 


(S  itt'.. 


Ir 


320 


APPENDICES. 


ming.  The  toes  iilom'  of  the  anterior  foot,  but  the  whole  of  the 
under  surface  of  the  koIc  in  the  poHtcrior,  arc  applied  to  tho 
ground  in  walking.  The  awkwardness  of  their  appearance  in 
this  action  is  moreover  heightened  by  the  clumsiness  of  their 
figure,  and  i)y  tho  diifieulty  which  they  seem  to  experience  in 
dragging  after  them  their  cumbrous  tail,  which  is  generally  suf- 
fered to  tr.iil  upon  the  ground,  but  is  sometimes  slightly  elevated 
or  even  curved  upward,  and  is  occasionally  moved  in  a  direction 
from  side  to  side.  In  the  water,  however,  this  member  becomes 
most  useful,  both  as  a  paddle  an<l  a  rudder,  to  urge  them  onward, 
and  to  direct  them  in  their  course. 

It  has  often  oeen  questioned  whether  the  beavers  of  Europe 
and  America  coniilitute  two  distinct  species.  M.  F.  Cuvier  has 
lately  pointed  out  some  slight  variations  in  the  form  and  relative 
dimensions  of  difl'ereut  portions  of  the  skulls  which  ho  had  an 
opportunity  of  examining;  but  his  observations  cannot  yet  be 
regarded  as  conclusive.  Other  naturalists  again  have  broadly 
maintained  that  the  solitary  and  burrowing  mode  of  life  of  the 
one,  and  the  social  and  constructive  propensities  supposed  to  be 
peculiar  to  th(!  other,  alone  afforded  sufficient  grounds  of  dis- 
crimination befween  them.  But  numberless  instances  ha  ,e  shown 
thnt  these  differences  in  their  modes  of  life  are  the  natural  results 
0.  \\e  circu'ustances  in  which  the  animals  are  respectively  placed ; 
an  '  that  the  habits  of  each,  in  a  situation  favorable  to  the  change, 
undergo  a  thorough  revolution.  Place  the  means  within  his  reach, 
and  the  constructive  instinct  of  the  solitary  beaver  becomes  fully 
developed;  withdraw  those  means,  an  J  the  once  skillful  builder 
degenerates  into  a  burrowing  herm't.  Those  of  Europe  are,  for 
the  most  part,  met  with  in  the  latter  predicament,  the  neighbor- 
hood of  civilized  man  having  thinned  thoir  numbers  and  rendered 
their  associations  perilous.  In  America,  on  the  contrary,  they 
form  populous  villages ;  but  only  in  the  back  and  unsettled  parts 
of  the  country;  those  which  are  found  on  the  confines  of  the 
different  settlements  have  precisely  the  same  habits  with  the 
European  animals. 

That  similar  villages  formerly  existed  in  various  parts  of 
Europe,  and  more  especially  in  the  north,  we  have  abundant 
proofs  in  the  ruins  of  these  ancient  edifices.  But  it  seems  to  have 
been  too  hastily  taken  for  granted  that  none  such  are  to  be  found 
at  the  present  day.     In  the  Transactions  of  tho  Berlin  Natuial 


BENNETTS   ARTICLE  ON   THE   BEAVER. 


321 


History  Sciciety  for  1829,  an  oxtrcinoly  interesting  account  is 
given  by  M.  dc  Moyerinck  of  a  colony  of  lu'iivcrs,  which  ha.-' 
been  settled  for  upwards  of  a  century  on  a  littl»!  river  called  th«' 
Nuthe,  about  half  a  league  above  its  confluence  with  the  Klbc, 
in  a  desert  and  sequestered  canton  in  the  district  of  Magdeburg. 
Our  author  speaks  of  this  little  ncttlemeut  as  icusisting,  in  the 
year  1822,  of  no  more  than  from  (ifteen  to  twenty  individual,-" ; 
but  few  as  they  were  they  excunited  all  the  laborious  tasks  of  a 
much  more  extensive  society.  They  fornjed  themselves  burrows 
of  thirty  or  forty  paces  in  length,  on  a  level  with  the  stream,  with 
one  opening  below  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  another  upon 
the  land  ;  built  huts  eight  or  ten  feet  in  iieipht,  of  branches  and 
trunks  of  trees,  laid  without  any  regularity,  and  covered  over 
with  soft  earth  ;  and  constructed  of  the  same  materials  a  dyke  so 
perfect  as  to  raise  the  level  of  the  water  more  than  a  foot.  All 
their  habits  indeed,  as  here  described,  coincide  so  exactly  with 
those  of  the  American  beavers,  that  we  should  feel  some  surprise 
at  M.  de  Meyorinck's  assertion  that  they  diflFered  from  them  in 
several  particulars,  and  especially  in  their  manner  of  building, 
were  it  not  manifest  that  his  ideas  of  the  transatlantic  race  were 
gleaned  from  the  relations  of  those  travellers  who  have  indulged 
their  imaginations,  instead  of  relying  upon  their  observations,  in 
all  that  they  have  written  concerning  these  singular  animals. 

The  history  of  the  beaver  teems  in  fact  with  the  most  ridicu- 
lous exaggerations.  Even  the  absurdities  of  the  ancients  have 
in  this  instance  been  exceeded  by  the  credulity  of  the  moderns. 
The  former,  indeed,  knew  the  animal  only  in  a  state  compara- 
tively solitary,  and  could  not  therefore  attribute  to  him  those 
ideas  of  social  policy  and  that  settled  system  of  government  for 
which  the  latter  have  given  him  unbounded  credit.  This  delusion, 
which  was  perhaps  natural  enough  to  those  who  took  but  a  su- 
perficial view  of  the  faculties  of  this  almost  mechanical  animal, 
has  now,  however,  passed  away;  and  the  intelligence  of  the 
beaver  is  recognized  as  nothing  more  than  a  remarkable  instinct 
exerted  upon  one  particular  object,  and  upon  that  alone.  In  all 
respects,  except  as  regards  the  skill  with  which  he  constructs  his 
winter  habitation,  and  the  kind  of  combination  into  which  he 
enters  with  his  fellows  for  carrying  their  common  purpose  into 
effect,  his  intelligence  is  of  the  most  limited  description.  He  has, 
in  fact,  no  need  of  those  artful  contrivances  to  which  many  ani- 

21 


322 


APPENDICES. 


m 


LU: 


mala  are  oompellea  to  havo  recourae.  HIh  food  is  Himple  uud 
easily  procured.  I'lis  cuemios,  man  rxfijdt'd,  are  few,  and  rarely 
of  a  formidal)l<!  de.-icriptlon ;  but  if  surprised  by  danfjer,  ho  is  quite 
unable  to  evade  it  by  the  exerelHe  of  cunning  or  sagacity,  and  his 
only  hope  of  safety  is  in  flight.  It  has  been  said  that  he  is  docile 
in  captivity,  and  may  bo  easily  rendered  obedient  to  the  com- 
mands of  his  keeper ;  but  it  would  appear  that  his  docility  is 
limited  to  a  patient  endurance  of  his  condition,  and  his  obedience 
to  a  simple  recognition  of  those  who  take  care  of  him,  and  wLum 
he  may  bo  taught  to  follow  from  place  to  place. 

His  [teculiar  conformation  renders  the  beaver  what  is  com- 
monly, although  improperly,  termed  an  amphibious  animal,  the 
greater  part  of  his  existence  being  passed  in  the  water,  in  which 
he  swims  and  dives  with  great  dexterity.  It  is  for  this  reason 
that  he  always  selects  for  his  dwelling-place  the  banks  of  rivers 
or  lakes.  Here  he  lives  secluded  during  the  summer  in  holes 
which  he  burrows  in  the  earth,  and  which  he  quits  only  in  search 
of  his  food,  and  to  indulge  himself  with  bathing.  But  as  the  au- 
tumn advances,  he  begins  to  look  out  for  society,  and  to  prepare 
against  the  rigors  and  the  dearth  of  winter.  With  this  view  he 
associates  himself  with  a  band  of  his  fellows,  sometimes  amount- 
ing in  number  to  two  or  three  hundred,  and  the  whole  body  im- 
mediately set  to  work  either  to  repair  their  old  habitations,  or  if 
they  have  been  con^^led  to  desert  their  former  place  of  abode, 
to  construct  new  ones^n  the  same  plan. 

The  mode  by  which  this  is  accomplished  has  been  so  repeat- 
edly described  by  French  and  English  travellers  in  the  northern 
parts  of  America,  that  it  might  seem  almost  superfluous  to  enter 
into  any  details  upon  such  a  subject,  were  we  not  well  assured  that 
many  of  the  facts  vouched  for  in  their  relations,  and  most  of  the 
coloring  which  has  been  given  to  them,  have  been  derived  either 
from  the  warmth  of  their  imaginations,  from  partial  and  imper- 
fect observation,  or  from  the  credulous  ignorance  of  their  inform- 
ants. Under  these  circumstances,  we  cannot  do  better  than  recur 
to  the  statements  of  one  or  two  practical  men,  whose  residence 
in  the  country,  and  close  connection  with  the  fur  trade,  gave 
them  the  best  opportunities  for  obtaining  correct  information,  and 
whose  narratives  bear  in  themselves  the  stamp  of  authenticity. 
Such  were  Heame,  one  of  the  most  intelligent  and  enterprising 
agents  whom  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  ever  employed ;  and 


BENNETT  S 


LK  ON  THE  BEAVER. 


323 


Cai'twriffht,  who  rcsiilod  for  nearly  sixtocii  yonrn  oi»  iht'  cousr  of 
Laltnidor  for  tlio  Hoh;  purposo  i>\'  prneuriiij;  furrf.  Frmn  the  jour- 
nals of  thcsu  two  phiiii-(lctiiiii);  ami  niattcr-of-ftii't  in<>ti  \V)>  sliall 
proimil  to  f^ivc  tho  principal  facts  with  which  they  furnish  us 
relative  to  the  habits  of  the  heaver  in  its  native  state  ami  to  the 
various  modes  adopted  by  the  hunters  for  possessiuj^  theinscilvcs 
of  its  valuable  skin. 

The  situations  in  which  the  beavers  build  are  very  various. 
Sometimes  tln'V  take;  their  abode  in  a  pond  or  a  lake,  in  which 
the  water  is  tolerably  uniform  in  height  and  pretty  deep  imme- 
diately under  the  bank  ;  but  tluty  generally  make  choice  of  a  run- 
ning stream  as  more  convenient  for  th(!  conveyance  of  their  ma- 
terials. They  are  also  said  to  select  in  [)reference  the  northern 
Bide  for  the  advantage  of  the  .sun,  and  the  bank  of  an  island 
rather  than  that  of  the  mainland,  as  affording  them  greater  se- 
curity from  tho  attacks  of  their  enemies.  In  this  selection,  how- 
ever, their  instinct  frequently  misleads  them,  for  they  have  been 
known  to  build  in  situations  where  they  have  been  unable  to  pro- 
cure food,  and  where  they  have  consecpiemly  perished  from  star- 
vation, or  to  have  fixed  upon  a  stream  which  has  been  so  swelled 
by  the  effects  of  a  heavy  thaw  as  to  sweep  away  not  only  their 
magazine  of  provisions,  but  sometimes  even  their  habitations. 

When  the  water  in  the  stream  is  not  sufficiently  deep  for  their 
purpose,  or  is  liable  to  be  diiainLshed  by  the  failure  of  the  supply 
from  above  in  consequence  of  frost,  they  commence  their  opera- 
tions by  throwing  a  dam  across  it  below  tho  part  which  they  in- 
tend to  occupy.  In  slow  rivulets  this  is  made  nearly  straight ; 
but  where  the  current  is  strong,  it  is  formed  with  a  curve  of 
greater  or  less  extent,  the  convexity  of  which  is  turned  toward 
the  stream.  The  materials  of  which  this  dam  is  constructed  con- 
sist of  drift-wood,  and  the  branches  of  willows,  birch,  and  pop- 
lars, compacted  together  by  mud  and  stones.  The  work  is  raised 
in  the  form  of  a  mound,  of  considerable  thickness  at  the  base, 
and  gradually  narrowing  toward  the  summit,  which  is  made  per- 
fectly level,  and  of  tho  exact  height  of  the  body  of  water  which 
it  is  intended  to  keep  up.  Cartwright  arlds  that  he  Las  frequently 
crossed  the  rivers  and  creeks  upon  these  dams  with  only  slightly 
wetting  his  shoes.  The  sticks  which  are  used  in  their  construc- 
tion vary  in  size  from  the  thickness  of  a  man's  finger  to  that  of 
his  ankle,  but  are  seldom  larger  unless  where  no  others  are  to  be 


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324 


APPENDICES. 


pnu'iired.  They  an*  mostly  obtained  from  the  neighboring  woods, 
where  thoy  arc  cut  with  a  dexterity  truly  astonishing.  A  beaver, 
according  to  Cartwright,  will  lop  oflf  with  its  teeth  at  a  single 
effort  a  stem  of  the  thickness  of  a  common  walking-stick  as 
cleanly  as  if  it  had  been  done  by  a  gardener's  pruning-knife. 
When  compelled  to  have  recourse  to  the  larger  trunks,  they  gnaw 
them  round  and  round,  always  taking  care  that  they  shall  fall  in 
the  direction  of  the  water,  in  order  as  much  as  possible  to  save 
themselves  carriage.  Judging  from  the  number  of  large  trees 
sometimes  cut  down  in  a  season,  it  would  appear  that  the  per- 
formance of  this  operation  cannot  occupy  a  very  considerable 
time.  As  soon  as  the  tree  is  felled  they  commence  lopping  off 
its  branches,  which,  as  well  as  the  smaller  trunks,  they  cut  into 
lengths,  according  to  their  weight  and  thickness.  These  are 
dragged  in  their  mouths,  and  sometimes  on  their  shoulders,  to  the 
water  side,  where  they  are  thrown  into  the  stream,  and  towed 
with  the  current  to  their  destination. 

Exactly  the  same  materials  are  employed  in  the  construction 
of  their  habitations.  These  are  built  either  immediately  beneath 
the  bank,  or,  if  the  pool  be  shallow,  at  some  little  distance  from 
it.  They  begin  by  hollowing  out  the  bottom,  throwing  up  the 
mud  and  stones  around  it,  and  intermingling  them  with  such 
sticks  as  they  can  procure.  The  walls  having  been  thus  raised 
to  a  sufficient  height,  the  house  is  covered  in  with  a  roof  in  the 
shape  of  a  dome,  generally  emerging  about  four  feet,  but  some- 
times as  much  as  six  or  seven,  from  the  water.  The  entrance  is 
made  beneath  a  projection  which  advances  several  feet  into  the 
stream  with  a  regular  descent,  terminating  at  least  three  feet  be- 
low the  surface,  to  guard  against  its  being  frozen  up.  This  is 
called  by  the  hunters  the  angle,  and  a  single  dwelling  is  some- 
times furnished  with  two  or  more.  Near  the  entrance,  and  on 
the  outside  of  their  houses,  the  beavers  store  up  the  branches  of 
trees,  the  bark  of  which  forms  their  chief  subsistence  during  the 
winter ;  and  these  magazines  are  sometimes  so  large  as  to  rise 
above  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  to  contain  more  than  a  cart- 
load of  provisions. 

In  all  these  operations  there  appears  to  be  no  other  concert  or 
combination  among  the  beavers  than  that  which  results  from  a 
common  instinct  impelling  them  to  the  performance  of  a  common 
task.     The  assertion  that  they  are  superintended  in  their  labors 


BENNETTS  ARTICLE  ON   THE   BEAVER. 


325 


by  aa  overseer,  who  gives  notice  to  his  workmen  when  to  be  at 
their  posts  by  flapping  with  his  tail  upon  the  water,  dividi^s  them 
into  parties  for  each  several  kinds  of  work,  distributes  their  em- 
ployments, assigns  their  stations,  and  superintends  the  execution 
of  his  commands,  is  too  absurd  to  require  refutation.  But  there 
are  many  other  statements  regarding  them  equally  untrue, 
although  not  at  first  sight  so  palpably  iidiculous.  Thus  it  is  said 
that  their  tails  are  used  by  them  as  sledges  for  the  c(jnveyance  of 
their  materials,  a  purpose  for  which  the  conformation  of  this  ap 
pendage  renders  it  highly  improbable  that  it  can  serve,  and  which 
observation  has  proved  to  be  performed  in  a  very  different  man- 
ner. But  not  content  with  metamorphosing  this  organ  into  a 
sledge,  our  travellers  have  also  made  it  a  trowel,  aiul  have  given 
very  particular  descriptions  of  the  manner  in  which  the  beaver 
employs  it  in  spreading  the  plaster,  with  which,  according  to 
their  accounts,  his  work  is  overlaid.  Unfortunately,  however,  it 
is  equally  unfitted  by  its  structure  for  such  an  operation ;  and  the 
only  organs  employed  in  mixing  up  the  mud  with  the  rest  of  tiie 
materials,  are  the  fore  paws  and  the  mouth.  These,  in  fact,  are 
the  instruments  with  which  all  the  labors  of  the  beavers  are 
effected;  and  it  is  suflBciently  obvious  that  neither  with  tlieir 
assistance,  nor  indeed  with  the  united  powers  of  all  their  organs, 
could  these  animals  drive  stakes  of  the  thickness  of  a  man's  leg 
three  or  four  feet  deep  into  the  ground,  or  execute  a  variety  oi 
other  feats  for  which  they  have  obtained  general  credit. 

The  sticks  and  branches  which  they  use,  instead  of  being 
driven  into  the  ground,  are  laid  for  the  most  part  in  a  horizontal 
direction,  and  they  are  only  prevented  from  floating  away  by  the 
stones  and  mud  which  are  brought  up  by  the  beavers  in  their 
paws  from  the  bottom  to  be  laid  upon  them,  and  which  gradually 
become  cemented  into  a  firm  and  compact  mass.  All  their  work 
is  performed  during  the  night.  Although  the  favorable  nature  or 
the  situation  may  have  induced  many  families  to  assemble  in  the 
same  spot,  they  do  not  on  that  account  carry  on  their  operations 
in  common;  unless  when  a  dam  of  large  extent  is  to  be  built, 
when  they  usually  unite  their  forces  for  its  completion.  Each 
family  occupies  itself  exclusively  on  its  own  habitation,  which 
has  in  general  but  one  apartment.  The  idea  of  their  houses 
being  divided  into  several  chambers,  each  allotted  to  its  appro- 
priate purpose,  may  have  originated  from  the  fact  of  their  some- 


326 


APPENDICES. 


times  building  by  the  side  of  a  deserted  dwelling,  with  which 
they  occasionally  open  a  communication.  The  families  vary  in 
the  number  of  individuals  of  which  they  are  composed,  but  sel- 
dom exceed  two  or  four  old  ones,  and  twice  as  many  young;  the 
females  producing  once  a  year,  from  two  to  three  or  four  at  a 
birth,  and  the  young  ones  generally  quitting  their  parents  at  the 
age  of  three  years,  and  seeking  out  or  building  a  separate  habita- 
tion for  themselves. 

In  summer-time  they  feed  either  upon  the  bark  of  trees  or 
upon  the  green  herbage  and  the  berries  which  grow  in  their 
neighborhood;  but  in  winter  theii  diet  is  almost  restricted  to  the 
former  article,  of  which  they  lay  in  a  large  stock  previously  to 
the  setting  in  of  the  frost.  From  this  store  they  cut  away  por- 
tions as  their  necessities  require ;  and  after  tearing  ofiF  the  bark 
reject  the  wood,  leaving  it  to  float  away  with  the  current.  Willow, 
poplar,  and  birch,  are  their  favorite  kinds,  and  the  latter,  accord- 
ing to  Cartwright,  renders  their  flesh  "the  most  delicious  eating 
of  any  animal  in  the  known  world."  The  root  of  the  water-lily 
also  afiFords  them  an  occasional  supply,  and  makes  them  very 
fat,  but  gives  their  flesh  a  strong  and  unpleasant  flavor. 

It  is  not,  however,  for  the  delicacy  of  their  flesh,  but  for  the 
peculiar  closeness  of  their  soft  and  glossy  fur,  that  a  war  of  ex- 
termination is  carried  on  by  man  against  these  peaceful  and  in- 
noxious beasts.  That  this  fur  was  at  an  early  period  in  great 
request  for  the  manufacture  of  hats  is  proved  by  a  proclamation 
issued  in  the  year  1038,  by  which  it  was  forbidden  to  make  use 
of  any  materials  therein  except  beaver  stuft'  or  beaver  wool.  From 
this  time  the  attention  of  the  North  American  Indians  has  been 
incessantly  directed  toward  these  poor  animals,  and  vast  quanti- 
ties have  in  consequence  been  destroyed  every  year.  Of  the 
numbers  thus  sacrificed,  and  of  the  importance  of  the  trade,  some 
idea  may  be  formed  by  the  amount  of  the  sales  at  various  places 
and  at  difl'erent  periods.  In  1743  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
alone  sold  26,t50  skins;  and  127,080  were  imported  into  Ro- 
chelle.  Upwards  of  170,000  were  exported  fron.  Canada  in  1788; 
and  Quebec  alone,  in  1808,  supplied  this  country  with  126,927, 
which,  at  the  estimated  average  of  eighteen  shillings  and  nine 
pence  per  skin,  would  produce  no  less  a  sum  than  £118,994. 

The  skin  of  the  young  or  cub  beaver  is  the  most  valuable,  as 
being  the  darkest  and  the  most  glossy;  and  the  winter  coat  is 


BENNETTS  ARTICLE  ON   THE   BEAVER. 


327 


far  superior  to  the  summer.  The  former  season  is  consequently 
preferred  fortaking  them,  and  various  means  are  adopted  for  the 
purpose.  Sometimes  tlie  ice  is  cut  throuj^h  both  above  and  l)e- 
low  their  dwellings,  nets  are  thrown  across,  and  the  devoted 
animals  are  driven  from  their  shelter  by  the  breaking  down  of 
their  houses,  and  compelled  to  enter  the  nets.  Sometimes  a 
number  of  holes  are  made  in  the  ice,  and  they  are  in  like  manner 
driven  from  their  habitations;  when,  as  they  are  unable  to  remain 
imder  water  for  any  long  time,  they  rise  to  the  surface  where  the 
ice  is  broken,  and  are  easily  secured.  Under  these  circumstances 
they  will  frequently  take  refuge  in  the  holes  in  the  banks,  which 
serve  them  for  summer  retreats;  but  the  experienced  hunters 
readily  detect  the  situation  of  these  vaults  by  striking  with  their 
chisels  on  the  ice,  and  always  select  such  spots  for  making  their 
apertures,  in  which  they  seldom  fail  of  capturing  their  victims. 
In  summer  it  is  more  usual  to  take  them  in  their  houses  by 
what  is  termed  staking  them.  For  this  purpose  the  hunters  first 
make  an  aperture  in  the  roof  to  ascertain  the  situation  of  the 
angle,  and  having  adapted  a  number  of  stakes  to  the  opening  so 
as  completely  to  blockade  it,  cover  in  the  top,  and  leave  the  stakes 
on  one  side  ready  for  use.  They  then  drive  the  beavers  from  all 
parts  of  the  pond  or  river  by  means  of  dogs;  and  when  the  terri- 
fied animals  have  succeeded  in  reaching  their  home,  they  replace 
the  stakes  before  the  entry,  remove  the  temporary  covering  from 
the  roof,  and  either  take  them  alive,  or  spear  them  in  their  house. 
When  the  sheet  of  water  which  they  inhabit  is  merely  kept  up  by 
a  dam,  they  are  still  more  easily  taken  by  letting  oflf  the  water 
and  leaving  their  huts  completely  dry.  The  gun  is  also  some- 
times, but  not  very  commonly  used ;  and  log  traps,  baited  with 
poplar  sticks,  occasionally  add  in  a  trifling  degree  to  the  havoc 
made  among  them. 

So  little  is  known  of  the  manners  of  the  beaver  in  a  domesti- 
cated state,  that  we  feel  a  peculiar  gratification  in  having  it  in  our 
power  to  give  the  extremely  interesting  history  of  an  ind'"idual 
which  belonged  to  Mr.  Brodloip,  to  whose  kindness  we  are  in- 
debted for  the  following  statement : 

"The  animal  arrived  in  this  country  in  the  winter  of  1825, 
very  young,  being  small  and  woolly,  and  without  the  covering  of 
long  hair  which  marks  the  adult  beaver.     It  was  the  sole  survi- 


328 


APPENDICES. 


vor  of  five  or  six  which  were  shipped  at  the  same  time,  and  it 
was  in  a  very  pitiable  condition.  Good  treatment  quickly  restored 
it  to  health,  and  kindness  soon  made  it  familiar.  When  called 
by  its  name,  '  Binny,'  it  generally  answered  with  a  little  cry,  and 
came  to  its  owner.  Tlie  hearth-rug  was  its  favorite  haunt,  and 
thereon  it  would  lie  stretched  out,  sometimes  on  its  back,  some- 
times on  its  side,  and  sometimes  flat  on  its  belly,  but  always  near 
its  master.  The  building  instinct  showed  itself  immediately  it  was 
let  out  of  its  cage  and  materials  were  placed  in  its  way ;  and 
this  before  it  had  been  a  week  iu  its  new  quarters.  Its  strength, 
even  befoic  it  was  half  grown,  was  great.  It  would  drag  along 
a  large  sweeping-brush,  or  a  warming-pan,  grasping  the  handle 
with  its  teeth  so  that  the  load  came  over  its  shoulder,  and  ad- 
vancing in  an  oblique  direction  till  it  arrived  at  the  point  where 
it  wished  to  place  it.  The  long  and  large  materials  were  always 
taken  first,  and  two  of  the  longest  were  generally  laid  crosswise, 
with  one  of  the  ends  of  each  touching  the  wall,  and  the  other 
ends  projecting  out  into  the  room.  The  area  formed  by  the 
crossed  brushes  and  the  wall  he  would  fill  up  with  hand-brushes, 
rush  baskets,  books,  boots,  sticks,  cloths,  dried  turf,  or  anything 
portable.  As  the  work  grew  high,  he  supported  himself  on 
his  tail,  which  propped  him  up  admirably,  and  he  would  often, 
after  laying  on  one  of  his  building  materials,  sit  up  over  against 
it,  appearing  to  consider  his  work,  or,  as  the  country  people  say, 
'judge  it.'  This  pause  was  sometimes  followed  by  changing 
the  position  of  the  material  'judged,'  and  sometimes  it  was  left 
in  its  place.  After  he  had  piled  up  his  materials  in  one  part  of 
the  room  (for  he  generally  chose  the  same  place),  he  proceeded 
to  wall  up  the  space  between  the  feet  of  a  chest  of  drawers,  which 
stood,  at  a  little  distance  from  It,  high  enough  on  its  legs  to  make 
the  bottom  a  roof  for  him,  using  for  this  purpose  dried  turf  and 
sticks,  which  he  laid  very  even,  and  filling  up  the  interstices  with 
bits  of  coal,  hay,  cloth,  or  anything  he  could  pick  up.  This  last 
place  he  seemed  to  appropriate  for  his  dwelling ;  the  former  work 
seemed  to  be  intended  for  a  dam.  When  he  had  walled  up  the 
space  between  the  feet  of  the  chest  of  drawers,  he  proceeded  to 
carry  in  sticks,  cloths,  hay,  cotton,  and  to  make  a  nest;  and 
when  he  had  done  he  would  sit  up  under  the  drawers  and  comb 
himself  with  the  nails  of  his  hind  feet.     In  this  operation,  that 


BENNETTS   ARTICLE   ON   THE   BEAVER. 


329 


which  appparcd  at  first  to  be  a  mairormntion  was  shown  to  be  a 
beautiful  adaptation  to  the  necessities  of  tlio  animal.  The  hu|re 
webbed  hind  feet  of  the  beaver  turn  in  so  as  to  give  tho  appear- 
ance of  deformity  ;  but  if  the  toes  were  straight  instead  of  being 
incurved,  the  animal  could  not  use  them  for  the  purpose  of  keep- 
ing its  fur  in  order  and  cleansing  it  from  dirt  and  moisture 

"  Binny  generally  carried  small  and  light  articles  between  his 
right  foro  leg  and  his  chin,  walking  on  the  other  three  legs ;  and 
large  masses,  which  he  could  not  grasp  readily  with  his  teeth,  he 
pushed  forward,  leaning  against  them  with  his  right  fore  paw 
and  his  cliin.  He  never  carried  anything  on  his  tail,  which  he 
liked  to  dip  in  water,  but  he  was  not  fond  of  plunging  in  the  whole 
of  his  body.  If  his  tail  was  kept  moist,  he  never  cared  to  drink ; 
but  if  it  was  kept  dry,  it  became  hot,  and  the  animal  appeared 
distressed,  and  would  drink  a  great  deal.  It  is  not  impossible 
that  the  tail  may  have  tho  power  of  absorbing  water,  like  the 
skin  of  frogs,  though  it  must  be  owned  that  the  scaly  integument 
which  invests  that  member  has  not  much  of  the  character  which 
generally  belongs  to  absorbing  surfaces. 

"  Bread,  and  bread  and  milk,  and  sugar,  formed  the  principal  part 
of  Binny's  food ;  but  he  was  very  fond  of  succulent  fruits  and  roots. 
He  was  a  most  entertaining  creature,  and  some  highly  comic  scenes 
occurred  between  the  worthy,  but  slow  beaver,  and  a  light  and 
airy  Macauco  that  was  kept  in  the  same  apartment." 

An  animal  so  sociable  in  his  habits  ought  to  be  affectionate; 
and  very  affectionate  the  beaver  is  said  to  be.  Deago  mentions 
two  young  ones  which  were  taken  alive  and  brought  to  a  neigh- 
boring factory  in  Hudson's  Bay,  where  they  throve  very  fast  until 
one  of  them  was  killed  accidentally.  The  survivor  instantly  felt 
the  loss,  began  to  moan,  and  abstained  from  food  until  it  died. 
Mr.  Bullock  mentioned  to  the  narrator  a  similar  instance  which 
fell  under  his  notice  in  North  America.  A  male  and  female 
were  kept  together  in  a  room,  where  they  lived  happily  till 
the  male  was  deprived  of  his  partner  by  dt^ath.  For  a  day  or 
two  he  appeared  to  be  hardly  aware  of  his  loss,  and  brought  food 
and  laid  it  before  her.  At  last,  finding  that  she  did  not  stir,  he 
covered  her  body  with  twigs  and  leaves,  and  was  in  a  pining 
state  when  Mr.  Bullock  lost  sight  of  him. 

The  specimens  in  the  garden  were  sent  to  the  Society  from 


330 


APPENDICES. 


Canada  by  Lord  Dalhousie.  They  were  partially  deprived  of 
Bight  before  their  arrival  in  this  country,  but  one  of  them  has 
still  the  U80  of  one  eye ;  and  the  other,  although  totally  blind, 
dives  most  perseveringly  for  clay,  and  applies  it  to  stop  up  eveiy 
cranny  in  their  common  habitation  that  can  admit  "the  winter's 
flaw."    They  both  appear  happy  and  contented. 


VINI& 


